Sandeep Kumar - A Complete Resource For CTET - Social Science and Pedagogy-Pearson India (2016)

A Complete Resource for

CTET (Central Teacher Eligibility Test)

Social Sciences and Pedagogy For Paper II

Sandeep Kumar Assistant Professor Department of Education University of Delhi

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Copyright © 2017 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd Published by Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd, CIN: U72200TN2005PTC057128, formerly known as TutorVista Global Pvt. Ltd, licensee of Pearson Education in South Asia. No part of this eBook may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the publisher’s prior written consent. This eBook may or may not include all assets that were part of the print version. The publisher reserves the right to remove any material in this eBook at any time. ISBN 978-93-325-7742-8 eISBN 978-93-325-8664-2 Head Office: A-8 (A), 7th Floor, Knowledge Boulevard, Sector 62, Noida 201 309, Uttar Pradesh, India. Registered Office: 4th Floor, Software Block, Elnet Software City, TS 140, Block 2 & 9, Rajiv Gandhi Salai, Taramani, Chennai - 600 113, Tamil Nadu, India. Fax: 080-30461003, Phone: 080-30461060 www.pearson.co.in, Email: [emailprotected]

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Contents Preface�� xxi About the Author�� xxiv Acknowledgments�� xxv Previous Year Papers��xxvii

UNIT-I History Chapter 01: When, Where, and How Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 How to Know our Past . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Types of Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Primary Source of History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Secondary Sources of History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Archaeological Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Literary Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Time and Space Concept in History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Chapter 02: Earliest Human Civilisation and Processes Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 How Do we Know about These People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Places Where People Started to Live . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Stone Tools and Their Making Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Changing Environment and Human Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Rock Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Understanding the Past through Paintings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Gatherers Became Cultivators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 On the Way of Settled Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

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iv | Contents Customs and Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earliest Cities of Indian Subcontinent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . What Makes These Cities Special . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Houses, Drains, and Streets of Harappan Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Life in These Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Availability and Accessibility of Raw Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Food for City People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Harappan Sites in Gujarat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Mystery of the End of a Civilisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19 20 20 21 22 24 24 25 26

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Chapter 03: State Formation and Social Change Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Post-Vedic Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transition to State and Social Orders (1000 BCE–500 BCE) . . . . . . . . . . . Diffusion of Iron Technology and Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relationship between Technological Development and Social Change . . . Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jainism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Diffusion of Iron Technology and Political Organisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rise of States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Magadha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vajji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30 30 30 31 32 33 33 34 35 35 36 36

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Chapter 04: Empires, Social, and Cultural Exchange Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Emergence of Magadha as Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Haryanka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Mauryan Empire: The Earliest Empire of Indian History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 How we Know about Mauryan Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Mauryan Kings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Kalinga War and Ashoka’s Dhamma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

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Contents | v Administration of the Mauryan Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Army Committee of the Mauryan Empire: Their Subcommittees and Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . New Notion of Kingship in Deccan and Further South India . . . . . . . . . . Pandyas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cheras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Satavahanas of Deccan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Era of Foreign Invaders: The Indo-Greeks (Yavanas), The Parthians, The Saka, and The Kushans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Indo-Greeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Parthians (Pahlavas) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sakas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kushans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gupta Empire and Economic Prosperity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . After Gupta Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social and Cultural Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44 45 45 47 47 47 48 48 49 49 49 50 52 52

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Chapter 05: Change and Continuity Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Emergence of New Kings and Kingdoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Process of Emergence of New Dynasties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Kingdoms’ Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Prashastis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Cholas Analysed the Main Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Brihadeeswarar Temple and Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple: Their Importance in Chola Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Chola Empire: Agriculture and Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Chola Empire: Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Transaction Period of North India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Chapter 06: Emergence of New Power and Social Change Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Establishment of Delhi Sultanate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

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vi | Contents Khilji Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tughlaq Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sayyid and Lodhi Sultans of Delhi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Source of Delhi Sultanate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emergence of Empire: The Mughal Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Babur (1526 CE–1530 CE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Humayun (1530 CE–1540 CE, 1555 CE–1556 CE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Akbar (1556 CE–1605 CE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jahangir (1605 CE–1627 CE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shah Jahan (1627 CE–1658 CE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aurangzeb (1658 CE–1707 CE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mughal Empire Administration: According to Ain-i-Akbari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social Changes During the New Emerged Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

72 74 75 76 77 77 77 78 79 79 79 80 81

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Chapter 07: Era of Rapid Changes Mughal Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Bengal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Hyderabad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Awadh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Mysore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Emergence of New Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Rajput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Maratha Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Maratha Rulers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Jats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Sikhs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 European Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Portugal Entry to India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 British East India Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 French East India Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Chapter 08: Nationalist Movement and Social Reforms Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Oriental Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

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Contents | vii Criticism of Orientalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Implication of British Colonisation on Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cause of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reasons for Emergence of Reform Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Atmiya Sabha and Brahmo Sabha/Samaj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prarthana Samaj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arya Samaj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ramakrishna Mission and Swami Vivekananda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Young Bengal Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Theosophical Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reform Movements among the Muslims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reform Movements among Parsis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Religious Reform among Sikhs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nationalist Movements (1870–1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . First Phase (1885–1905) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Second Phase (1906–1916) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Third Phase (1917–1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

102 103 103 104 104 105 106 107 107 107 108 108 109 109 109 110 111

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

Chapter 09: India after Independence Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oldest Civilisation in the Form of a New and Divided Nation . . . . . . . . . . . . Acceptance of New Form of Governance and Rule of Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . State Formation and Their Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Notion of Development and Their Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sovereign India and Their Search of Independence Foreign Policy . . . . . . . . India after 70 Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

118 118 122 126 130 132 133

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Unit-Ii Geography Chapter 01: Solar System Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

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viii | Contents Mercury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Venus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jupiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Saturn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Uranus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Neptune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earth in the Solar System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shape and Size of Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Moon (Natural Satellite) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dwarf Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Asteroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Meteoroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Constellation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

142 142 142 143 143 143 143 144 144 144 144 144 145 145 145

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Chapter 02: Earth in Solar System Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Composition of Earth (In Percentage) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interior of Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Volcano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of Volcanoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earthquake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

150 150 151 153 155 155 156

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

Chapter 03: Globe Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Latitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Longitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Motions of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earth’s Inclination on Its Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Solar Eclipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Contents | ix Lunar Eclipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Heat Zones of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Time Zone and Standard Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

Chapter 04: Environment Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hydrosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lithosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

170 170 171 174 174 175

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

Chapter 05: Air Structure of Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weather and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Air Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of Air Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Air Pressure and Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forces Affecting the Direction of Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seasonal Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Local Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sea and Land Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Valley and Mountain Winds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Air Masses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Monsoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Permanent Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

180 181 181 182 182 182 183 183 183 183 184 184 185 185 186

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

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x | Contents

Chapter 06: Water Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of Water Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Some Features of Hydrosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waves and Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water Resources of India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Surface Water Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Groundwater Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Major River Systems in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ganges River System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Indus River System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Famous Lakes of India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

189 189 190 191 191 192 193 193 194 195 195 195 196 196

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

Chapter 07: Agriculture Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Agriculture System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forms of Cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of Cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Major Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cropping in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cropping Patterns in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other Important Crops of India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

200 200 201 201 202 203 204 205

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

Chapter 08: Resources Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Natural Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of Minerals in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Energy Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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209 209 209 212 213

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Contents | xi Conventional Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Non-Conventional Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

Chapter 09: Human Environment Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Density of Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Growth of Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Composition of Indian Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Settlements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transport and Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Road Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Train Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Immigrants from Neighbouring Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reasons for Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Consequence of Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

219 219 220 222 223 224 224 225 225 226 226 227 227 228 229

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

UNIT-III Social and Political Life Chapter 01: Understanding Diversity Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . What Is Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Understanding Diversity in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Does Diversity Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Diversity and Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Understanding Stereotypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dealing with Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Struggle for Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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237 237 238 241 242 243 244 245

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xii | Contents Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Chapter 02: Government Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Types of Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Levels of Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Central Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 The President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Lok Sabha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Rajya Sabha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 State Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

Chapter 03: Making a Living Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Livelihood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . On Being in Debt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rural Livelihoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Urban Livelihoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Migrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Businesspersons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Factory-Workshop Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . In the Office Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Understanding Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Understanding Equality and Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

267 267 268 269 269 269 269 270 270 270 271

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

Chapter 04: Democracy Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Definition of Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Historical View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of Democracies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Contents | xiii Direct Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Representative Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Parliamentary Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Presidential Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Other Kinds of Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Views Against Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Views Favouring Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Requisites for Successful Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

Chapter 05: Understanding Media Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Democracy and Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 What Is to Be Advertised and How . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Understanding Advertising Critically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Media Can Be a Tool for Political and Economic Development . . . . . . . . . . 289 Monitoring Government Action and Empowering People about Their Exploitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Strength to Strong Economy to Work towards Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Developing Public Opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

Chapter 06: Understanding Gender Perspective Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gender Beyond Male or Female . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Terms Related to Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sex (Biological) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gender Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Expression of Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gender Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Orientation towards Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fluidity in Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Issues and Challenges in Gender Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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293 294 295 295 295 296 296 296 296 297 297

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xiv | Contents Accountability and Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Perceiving Women’s Contribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Policy-Level Issues and Poor Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inappropriate and Insufficient Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Unattended or Neglected Field and Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Little Demand by a Person Who Gets Exploited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

297 297 298 298 298 298

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

Chapter 07: The Constitution Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Need for a Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Making of the Constitution of India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Preamble of Indian Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . We, the People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sovereign State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Socialist State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Secular State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Democratic State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Republic State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Liberty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fraternity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Procedure of Constitutional Amendments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Some Important Constitutional Amendments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

303 304 304 305 306 306 306 306 306 307 307 307 307 308 308 308

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

Chapter 08: Parliamentary Democracy Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prime Minister is Appointed by the Head of the Nation but Elected by the People of the Nation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vote of Confidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Power of De Facto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Constitutional Ruler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Contents | xv No Separation of Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lower House Has an Important Role in the Government . . . . . . . . . . . . Accountability towards the Legislature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Collective Accountability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prime Minister is the Leader of the Nation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Existence of Opposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Powerful Cabinet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Parliamentary Democracy in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Advantages of Parliamentary Democratic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Collectiveness and Togetherness of the Executive and the Legislature . . Division of Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Permanent Upper House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Criticism of Parliamentary Democratic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

314 314 315 315 315 315 315 315 318 318 318 318 318

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

Chapter 09: Social Justice and the Marginalised Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 Exploring Marginalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 Analysing Marginalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 Dalits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Does Marginalisation Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 What Needs to be Done for Social Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

UNIT-IV Pedagogical Perspectives and Issues Chapter 01: What Is Pedagogy Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Teachers’ Role in Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Creating Context for Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Holistic Sense of Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Exploring Participatory Approach to Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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333 334 334 335 337 338

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xvi | Contents Use of Participatory Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 Environment for Comprehensive Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

Chapter 02: Issues and Challenges of Teaching–Learning Social Science Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Objectives of Teaching Social Science at Secondary Level (Nce 2005) . . . . . 348 Subjective Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 Teaching for Main Streaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 Teachers are Not Trained to Teach Social Science as They are Specialised in One Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 Highly Influential by Teachers’ Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 Negative Perspective about Social Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 Teaching of Social Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 Nature of Social Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 What to Teach in Social Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Over Simplification of Social Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Gap Between Teaching of Social Science and Dealing with Societal Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Lack of Promoting the Skills of Thinking, Questioning, Critical Analysis, and Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Lack of Authentic Field Experience- and Inquiry-Based Projects . . . . . . . 352 Teachers’ Understanding about the Objectives of Teaching of Social Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 Lack of Zeal in Teachers about Social Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 Reforms in Education and Social Science Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Lack of Professional Development of Social Science Teachers . . . . . . . . 353 Teaching Social Science is Only Theory or it Develops Creative Skills Also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Space for Reflection on Social Science Content to Become Good Citizens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 To Provide Space for Developing National Consciousness . . . . . . . . . . . 354 Social Reality Versus Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 Issus Related to Interdisciplinary Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 Hegemony of Science and Science Method and Struggle For Existence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

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Contents | xvii Memorisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Summarising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 What is Significant about Teaching of Social Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

Chapter 03: Classroom Processes, Activities and Discourse Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Approaches to Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Active Learning Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Peer Teaching Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Collaborative Learning Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inquiry- and Discovery-based Learning Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Problem-based Learning Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Experiential Learning Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Community Learning Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reflection Learning Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

361 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

Chapter 04: Developing Critical Thinking Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Why we Need Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Developing Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Critical Thinking and the Social Studies Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Importance of Critical Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . How to Do Effective Thinking—A Developmental Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . Planning Educational Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Collecting Fundamental Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Systematic and Gradual Change in the Curriculum as per Need of the Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Locate the Problem Areas of Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Initiate Discussion with Learners about the Effective Thinking Skills . . . Shift From Old to New Way of Thinking Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Self-Monitoring Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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xviii | Contents Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384

Chapter 05: Sources: Primary and Secondary Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Primary Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of Primary Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Why we Need to Use Primary Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Secondary Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of Secondary Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Why Use Secondary Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . How the Use of Primary and Secondary Sources Facilitates Learning for Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Engagement of Learners with Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Developing Critical- and Inquiry-based Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Development and Construction of Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evaluate the Ability of Using HOTS on Various Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . .

387 387 388 388 389 389 389 390 390 390 391 391

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393

Chapter 06: Evaluation in Social Science Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Purpose of Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 Largely Learner Learns What Is Provided in the Classroom Interaction . . 396 Students’ Context (Social and Economic) Has a Great Role to Play in Their Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 Learners Learn More When They Are Given Chance for Inquiry in the Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 How to Evaluate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Need of Evaluation for Learner’s Learning in Social Science . . . . . . . . . . 398 Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 Assessment of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 Assessment for Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 Assessment as Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401

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Contents | xix Technique of Evaluation in Social Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Objective Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Short Question Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Long Question Answer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Project Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Detailed Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oral Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Exhibition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Group Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Challenge of Evaluation in Social Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Accountability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . How to Ensure Minimum Ability Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prejudices and Biases in Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

402 402 402 403 403 403 404 404 404 404 404 405 405

Significant Points to Keep in Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 Check Your Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Objective Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Model Test Paper-I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M1 Model Test Paper-II�� M6 Model Test Paper-III�� M12 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B1

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Preface This book is departing from over dominance of facts in social science to development of conceptual perspectives about the various aspects associated with our everyday life. This book also provides relief to not only learner moreover to the discipline of social science to take breath separate and beyond the hegemony of science. It also focuses to establish the identity of social science related but not subordinate of science. The another main objective of this book is to stablish social science as a subject or discipline which cannot be studied in segregated manner and therefore there is need to develop social science with the inclusive approach as far as allied subjects are concern. This book is a systematic effort to under social science as a social science with its own nature. Another agenda of this book is to provide space and opportunities to understand the concept simply as well as with increasing complexity. It is tried in this book that concepts are presented relatively complex. This is done to avoid the habituation of mind to understand things simply without engaging with complexity of the ideas and tasks. What make is more interesting that this book is not only for the people of social sciences rather non social science people must read it to develop a significant perspective about social science, which will help them to criticize their own understanding of social science if they are continued to understand social science as boring and facts and figure based subject. The beauty of the book is that it is not written (for example history) only chronologically rather largely to help learners to understand the concept effectively, it is written conceptually. Therefore, it does not simply deals with the dates and kings rather it works on conceptual issues. This book also works the principle to Five E’s- engaging, exploration, elaborating, explaining and enhancing. Every chapter of the book provides space for the engagement of learner in the given content which leads towards exploration, elaboration, explanation and enhancement. These 5 Es are further discussed in second segment of preface. The writing style is not rigid, structured and bound in the formal way, rather writer has used open perspective to use, and therefore one will find variation in writing style which changes as per concept and examples used for explanation. This provides freedom to reader to think and construct meaning out of the content discussed in the chapter.

Brief about the Book This book is presented in four parts, though author is more convinced to have a collective writing regarding social science but the current available discourse forced to present this book in given

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xxii | Preface for domains named History, Geography, Social and Political Science and pedagogical perspectives and issues. First unit is related to history, which provides a comprehensive understanding about history. One will find it written in a different way as it is a combination of two writing styles of history i.e. chronological and conceptual. It ranges from ancient time to the present time, where it not only presents the content rather raised question about various aspects related to historical issues, challenges and debates. The whole idea behind this is to develop critical perspective about history where learner does not accept any given rather crucially review and revisit the fact. The content is also break to monotonous way of reading and writing history and provides and reflective space to analyses the historical concepts. Second unit deals with Geography, which provides space and opportunities to understand various aspects of geography. This book have given special emphasis on using lived experiences to understand geographical concepts with relation to other sister branches of social science like history and geography. A special emphasis has given on human geography, which provides a unique perspective to the book. Various pictures are used to illustrate the concept of Earth, water, Globe etc., so that learner can develop better understand with pictorial representation. The book provides a comprehensive opportunity to understand concept critically and use their cognitive skills. Third unit of the book is related to social and political life. The idea of this segment is to facilitate learners to understand political science not only as social aspect of life rather as a pure discipline of political science which NCF 2005 failed to do. This book is a great deviation from the epistemological conflict which is created by NCF 2005 to define political science as a branch of social science. This book is not only explains the social aspects of political concept rather discuss the functional education of these concepts, which was missing in the books written on the basis of NCF 2005. The idea of gender, equality, freedom, governing system, democracy etc. are discussed with substantiate examples. The book provides space to develop meta-cognitive abilities, critical and reflective thinking about the various political issues, challenges and concerned.

How This Book Will Help The available books in social science pedagogy, either talks about the content or only deals with pedagogy, but this book is an effort to bring these two aspects bring together to make comprehensive and depth sense of social science as a discipline. All four units of this book are written comprehensively with reader friendly language, which facilitate them to understand the concept. Along with this simplicity, book also provides cognitive challenges to reader to develop critical understanding about the concept. Critical ability to understand knowledge facilitates leaners to transfer knowledge from one situation to another. Reading all dimensions of social science and relating them with pedagogical perspective strengthen the learners understanding social science. The brief point after every chapter gives a quick look of the chapter, which enhance the academic rigor of the book. Hence this book facilitates cognition to think critically not only about social science rather in general.

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Preface | xxiii

How to Read This Book Suggesting how to read this book will dismiss the very novel idea of this book itself that there is no fixed method or way of reading and it depends the way reader feels comfortable and understand the concept. What effort I am trying to do here is to share how one can engage with this book. The engagement can be understood at two levels but these two levels move simultaneous. First is the 5 Es which have been discussed above and second how to select the portion of the book to read (first to end or selective portion). The present book have 4 parts where first three represent history, geography and social political life and forth part is pedagogy of social science. Let us consider second level first i.e. how to select what to read first. We should not read this book from one chapter to the last chapter in continuation, rather we need to select few chapters form one section and after finishing those few chapter from next section such as read two chapters from history, two from geography, two from history and then two from pedagogical perspectives. This will help learner to develop a sense of social science in a collective and inclusive manner then reading rather reading them separately. Learners will also be able to make linkages between official branches of social science. Fist level provides space to engage with cognitive process. Suggested 5 Es provide opportunities to understand explore and generate knowledge. Every chapter has space for learners to engage with creative question where their own thinking gets stimulated. Their engagement will also help them to explore the concern arears in their own life and experiences which will further facilitate them to elaborate about the concepts. At fourth step they will be able to provide explanation of the concepts critically, which is known as authentic knowledge. All these 4 Es create a platform to develop or enhancing learner ideas, perspectives and knowledge about any concept. That is how they will be able to enhance their learning. Therefore, this two fold process of reading this book will provide better space to understand the available content critically. The reader must keep three things in mind while reading this book i.e. the methodology used to write and argue about the concepts either in favor or against, substantive ness of the discussed content, what can be more added to or to what extent this content is substantiate to develop a perspective about social science and third critiquing the discussed content, which will provide reader space to think beyond given ideas. The idea of this book is not praising the book rather understanding the ideas and critiquing it for further generating of knowledge and this should be the actual purpose of any quality book.

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About the Author Dr Sandeep Kumar is working as an Assistant Professor at Central Institute of Education (CIE), Department of Education, University of Delhi. He has done his masters in Political Science and Education and followed it up with an M.Phil. degree in constructivist perspective of learning processes. His doctoral degree is in Human Right Education from University of Delhi. Recently, he has been nominated as a member of the core committee of National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE); constituted for a three-year B.Ed., M.Ed. integrated programme. His research work focuses on sociological, psychological and human rights perspectives of education and other associated issues. His area of interest extends beyond theoretical dimension, tending more towards praxis. Dr Kumar’s previous associations were as PGT Political Science, Assistant Professor in DIET– SCERT and Assistant Professor in IP University before joining University of Delhi. He was the principal investigator for several including five project funded by Delhi University. One international project named UK–India Educational Research Initiative (UKIERI), and two projects funded by IASE–MHRD. He has organized many seminars, workshops and symposia including a national level conference. He was invited as pedagogy and psychological expert by various school organizations including Kendriya Vidyalaya for in-service teacher training programmes and programmes conducted by SCERT. A prolific author of many books—Covering Social Science Teaching, Human Rights Education, Child Development and Pedagogy and other allied areas. He has presented research papers in national and international conferences and contributed theses to research journals and edited books. He has guided more than 15 dissertations for the master of education programme and is currently guiding two scholars to their doctoral degrees. For feedback and comments you are welcome to write to [emailprotected]

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Acknowledgements This work has been a journey for me and it has not occurred in a vacuum. The present work has reached its completion with the support and encouragement of numerous people, including my well-wishers, my friends, colleagues, and the help and support of various institutions. Having completed my work, I would like to thank all the people who made this work possible and made this journey an unforgettable experience. I cannot forget to thank Akhilesh, Lalit and Proxy for their helpfulness. We have discussed our work for hours together, in person and over the phone. Discussing my work with them has consistently motivated me to complete my work. I, especially, want to thank my mother and father. They have worked very hard and sacrificed a lot for me. They have, also, provided me unconditional love and care. Similar love and care was provided by my brother, Kuldeep. He has been my best friend throughout my life and I am thankful to him for all his advice and support. I would not have made it this far without them. My heartiest thank goes to my wife Ritu. Her unconditional support has helped me to complete this work. I feel that I have learned a lot about life and strengthened my commitment towards her over the past few years. I truly respect her for all that she has done for me. How can I forget to thank the two little angels I have in my life, Lavanya and Samarth. Although I tried my best to provide them the time and care possible, my work schedules, often, prevented me from fulfilling my fatherly responsibilities. I will compensate this absence in the coming years. I also thank God for providing me strength to work hard and consistently.

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Sandeep Kumar

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Previous Year Papers Social Science

Directions: Answer the following questions by selecting the most appropriate option. 1. Who among the following sailors sailed westwards across the Atlantic Ocean to find a sea route to India? (a) Vasco da Gama (b) Xuanzang (c) Christopher Columbus (d) Faxian 2. Which among the following dynasties introduced Malayalam language script in its inscriptions? (a) The Cholas (b) The Kushans (c) The Cheras (d) The Pandyas 3. The Revolt of Songram Sangma in 1906 took place because (a) the Muslim traders in Bengal rose against the unequal terms of trade set by the British. (b) the peasants in Champaran revolted against the indigo planters. (c) the Patidar peasants of Gujarat rebelled against the high land revenue demand of the British. (d) the tribal groups in Assam reacted against the colonial forest laws.

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February 2016

4. The Simon Commission, sent by the British to India in 1927, was opposed because (a) it had no Indian representative in it. (b) it had only English educated Indian representatives. (c) it had very few Indian representatives as compared to the British. (d) it had no Indian woman representative. 5. Match the following: Movement/ Organisation

Reformer

A. Brahmo Samaj I. Swami Vivekananda B. Young Bengal II. Syed Ahmad Khan Movement C. Ramakrishna III. H enry Louis Vivian Mission Derozio D. Aligarh Movement

(a) (b) (c) (d)

IV. K eshub Chandra Sen

A-IV B-III C-I D-II A-I B-IV C-III D-II A-III B-II C-IV D-I A-II B-I C-IV D-III

6. Veteran Gandhian leader Potti Sriramulu went on hunger strike in 1952, demanding the formation of which of the following States? (a) Tamil Nadu (b) Telangana

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xxviii | Social Science (c) Kerala (d) Andhra Pradesh 7. Who among the following was an exponent of the notion of Wahdat-i-deen that upholds the essential oneness of all religions? (a) Muhammad Ali Jinnah (b) Baji Muhammad (c) Maulana Azad (d) Syed Ahmad Khan 8. The main latitude that passes almost halfway through India is: (a) The Equator (b) The Arctic Circle (c) The Tropic of Capricorn (d) The Tropic of Cancer 9. Which one of the following defines the ‘Earth Day’? (a) The motion of the earth around the sun in its orbit (b) The days on which the days and nights are equal all over the earth (c) The distances between the longitudes (d) The period of one rotation of the earth around its axis 10. Match the following: Types of Vegetation

Species of Plants

A. Tropical rain forest I. Sundari

11. India’s research stations ‘Maitri’ and ‘Dakshin Gangotri’ are located in which continent? (a) Australia (b) Europe (c) Africa (d) Antarctica 12. Consider the following two statements about ocean currents and choose the correct answer: I. The warm ocean currents originate near the Equator and move towards the Poles. II. The cold ocean currents carry water from lower latitudes to higher latitudes. (a) I is true and II is false (b) Both I and II are true (c) Both I and II are false (d) I is false and II is true 13. ‘Transhumance’ refers to (a) seasonal movement of people for their livelihood. (b) urban to rural migration of labour force during harvesting period. (c) seasonal movement of people with their livestock in search of new pastures. (d) seasonal movement of wild animals. 14. Match of the following:

B. Tropical deciduous II. Babool forest

Types of Rocks A. Instructive igneous rocks

I Limestone

C. Thorny bushes

III. Mahogany

B. Extrusive igneous rocks

II Sandstone

D. Mangrove forest

IV. Saj

C. Sedimentary rocks

III Basalt

D. Metamorphic rocks

IV Granite

(a) (b) (c) (d)

A-III A-IV A-I A-II

B-IV C-II D-I B-III C-I D-II B-II C-III D-IV B-I C-IV D-III

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Examples

(a) A-IV B-III C-II D-I (b) A-III B-IV C-I D-II

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Previous Year Papers: February 2016 | xxix (c) A-I B-II C-III D-IV (d) A-II B-I C-IV D-III 15. ‘Chinook’, a local wind, blows in which of the following regions? (a) The Velds (b) The Pampas (c) The Prairies (d) The Savannas 16. Which one of the following atmospheric layers helps in radio transmission? (a) Stratosphere (b) Thermosphere (c) Troposphere (d) Mesosphere 17. Which one of the following is a variety of ‘gold wrought’? (a) Silk (b) Jute (c) Cotton (d) Nylon 18. Population density refers to (a) the number of people living in a unit area of the earth’s surface. (b) the way in which people are spread across the earth’s surface. (c) the number of people living in a particular area. (d) the number of people living during a specific time. 19. Which one of the following methods is used to take out minerals lying near the surface of the earth? (a) Open-cast mining (b) Shaft mining (c) Quarrying (d) Drilling

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20. ‘Basket weaving’ is an example of which one of the following types of industry? (a) Cooperative sector (b) Large scale (c) Small scale (d) Joint sector 21. Which one of the following statements about monarchy is incorrect? (a) In a monarchy, people can raise questions about the decisions taken by the monarch. (b) The monarch does not have to explain the decisions taken by him/her. (c) In a monarchy, people cannot question the decisions taken by the monarch. (d) The final decision-making power lies with the monarch. 22. On which one of the following rivers is Krishna Raja Sagara Dam constructed? (a) Mahanadi (b) Kaveri (c) Godavari (d) Krishna 23. The Hindu Succession Amendment Act, 2005, provides an equal share in the deceased father’s property to: (a) Daughter(s), son(s), and brother(s) (b) Wife, daughter(s), and sister(s) (c) Wife, son(s), and daughter(s) (d) Wife, son(s), and brother(s) 24. Who among the following national leaders coined the phrase ‘Unity in Diversity’ to describe the Indian Nation-State? (a) Mahatma Gandhi (b) Bal Gangadhar Tilak (c) Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (d) Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru

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xxx | Social Science 25. Consider the following two statements about the functions of Janpad Panchayat and choose the correct answer: I. The Janpad Panchayat makes developmental plans at district level. II. The Janpad Panchayat helps Zila Parishad to regain money distribution among Gram Panchayats. (a) I is true and II is false (b) Both I and II are false (c) I is false and II is true (d) Both I and II are true 26. Consider the following two statements on the Right to Information (RTI) Act and choose the correct answer: I. Through the RTI Act, a citizen can get information pertaining to the working of the departments of the Central Government only. II. To get information under the Right to Information Act, a citizen has to first file a petition in any court of any level. (a) I is true and II is false (b) Both I and II are false (c) I is false and II is true (d) Both I and II are true

29. In the context of Indian judiciary, appellate system means (a) separation of power among the legislature, executive, and judiciary. (b) that one can plead one’s case in a court without having a degree in law. (c) the decisions made by the higher courts are binding on the lower courts. (d) one can move to a higher court if one feels that the judgement of the lower court is not just. 30. The executive organ of the State refers to (a) the elected representatives. (b) every citizen of the country exercising universal adult franchise. (c) a group of people responsible for implementing laws and running the government. (d) the judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts. 31. Article 22 of the Constitution ensures: (a) Right to Constitutional Remedies (b) Right not to be ill-treated during arrest or while in custody (c) Right against Exploitation (d) Right to Education

27. Who among the following was the writer of the story, Sultana’s Dream? (a) Rokeya Sakhawat Hussain (b) Pandita Ramabai (c) Mumtaz Ali (d) Rassundari Devi

32. Who among the following is the leader of the ruling party in Lok Sabha? (a) The president (b) The Vice President (c) The Prime Minister (d) The Speaker

28. Who among the following wrote the book, Gulamgiri? (a) E. V. Ramasamy Periyar (b) Dr B. R. Ambedkar (c) Jyotirao Phule (d) Shri Narayan Guru

33. Consider the following statements on the nature of Social Science at the upper primary stage: I. It is study of people in their environment. II. It is a study of relations among people and their interdependence.

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Previous Year Papers: February 2016 | xxxi III. It is a study of the past and its relation to the present. Select the most appropriate choice from the above statements. (a) (b) (c) (d)

I and II I, II, and III II and III I and III

34. Social and Political Life textbooks at the upper primary level cover content related to which of the following subjects? (a) Psychology (b) International Relations (c) Economics (d) Philosophy 35. Why would you ask questions on historical imagination? Choose the most appropriate option from the following: (a) It shows how historians fill gaps in history with their imagination. (b) It is fun-way to remember dates end events. (c) It encourages comparison of the present with the past. (d) It evaluates a student’s ability to identify sources. 36. Why would you use narratives in Social Science teaching? Choose the most appropriate reason from the given options. (a) To sensitize students so that they can find appropriate role models (b) To ensure that syllabus is completed (c) To entertain and enliven a class (d) To link concepts to live realities 37. According to the National Focus Group (2006), the teaching of Social Science is losing popularity as

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(a) it lays too much emphasis upon scientific temperament. (b) it presents several situations of conflict in human values. (c) it is considered as a non-utilitarian subject. (d) it encourages many subjects study. 38. Which one of the given choices is an incorrect description of school-based assessment? (a) It covers scholastic aspects. (b) It covers only co-curricular aspects. (c) It covers non-scholastic aspects. (d) It covers all aspects. 39. Consider the following two statements on a teacher’s role in transacting a Social Science topic and select the correct answer: I. The teacher must ensure the dignity of all students and conduct discussions with sensitivity. II. The teacher must focus upon facts with the boys and the feelings of the girls. (a) Only I (b) Neither I nor II (c) Only II (d) Both I and II 40. Why is the study of Social Science ‘scientific’? (a) It helps its reader to study the scientific society. (b) It comprises systematically acquired verified knowledge. (c) It uses scientific terms in its content. (d) It fulfils the demand for calling Social Studies as science. 41. You have to depict the proportion of time a rural worker spends as employed,

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xxxii | Social Science underemployed, and unemployed in a year. Which one of the following diagrammatic representations would you select? (a) Pie diagram (b) Bar diagram (c) Time line diagram (d) Flow diagram

45. What is the nomenclature change suggested by the National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2005, for Civics? (a) History (b) Geography (c) Social and Political Life (d) Economics

42. Select the most appropriate reason for assessing students through art in Social Science subjects. (a) It improves students’ artistic abilities. (b) It is a means to enjoy different styles of expression depicted in the textbook. (c) It makes it an enjoyable way of evaluation. (d) It provides an opportunity for personal interpretation of concepts.

46. Which value will you emphasise the least in the upper primary Social Science classroom from among the following? (a) Competitiveness (b) Cooperation (c) Scientific approach (d) Equality

43. Which one of the following projects on ‘global warming’ is based on secondary sources? (a) Interviews with elders living in an area on changes in weather (b) A collage of pictures on global warming (c) A graphical representation of unanalysed weather data collected from meteorological office (d) A discussing based on the weather changes mentioned in a book 44. A teacher provides some criteria to students and asks them to assess their projects on those bases. Which one the following assessment measures has been adopted by the teacher? (a) Peer assessment (b) Formative assessment (c) Self-assessment (d) Summative assessment

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47. What is the purpose of summative assessment of students? (a) Assessing during the class (b) Assessing at the end of term (c) Assessing a project (d) Assessing at the end of a lesson 48. Suppose a teacher has to teach the chapter, ‘The Cold Desert—Ladakh’ in Class VII. Which one of the following methods would be most appropriate? (a) Survey method (b) Workshop method (c) Case study method (d) Regional method 49. Which one of the following methods is most relevant for the teaching of historical facts/historiography at the upper primary level? (a) Project method (b) Map method (c) Problem method (d) Source method

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Previous Year Papers: February 2016 | xxxiii 50. The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2005, recommends that children’s school education must be linked with: (a) The outside school environment (b) The annual examinations (c) The mainstream opinions (d) The conditions of the school infrastructure 51. On which of the following choices is the data best represented by a bar diagram? (a) Temperature (b) Air pressure (c) Rainfall (d) Humidity 52. In order to develop an understanding of democratic institutions, choose the most appropriate curricular approach from the following. (a) Describe ideal situations (b) Provide examples of realities along with ideal situations (c) Provide mainly national-level examples (d) Introduce students to harsh realities 53. In which one of the following languages, mathematician and astronomer, Aryabhata wrote his book, Aryabhatiyam? (a) Hindi (b) Prakrit (c) Pali (d) Sanskrit 54. Which one of the following stupas is marked as the place where the Buddha preached his first message? (a) Sarnath (b) Bodh Gaya (c) Sanchi (d) Thotlakonda

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55. Which were the three dynasties referred to as ‘Muvendar’ in Sangam poems? (a) The Cholas, the Rashtrakutas, and the Pandyas (b) The Cholas, the Palas, and the Rash trakutas (c) The Palas, the Cholas, and the Pandyas (d) The Cholas, the Cheras, and the Pandyas 56. The Rampurwa bull, a polished stone sculpture, now placed in Rashtrapati Bhawan, was built during the reign of which one of the following? (a) The Mauryas (b) The Pandyas (c) The Cholas (d) The Kushans 57. Who among the following propounded the doctrine of ‘VishishtAdvaita’? (a) Shankara (b) Allama Prabhu (c) Ramanuja (d) Basavanna 58. An archive is a place where (a) sculptures found in excavations are kept. (b) remains of the buildings made of stones and bricks found by archaeologists are kept. (c) historical manuscripts and documents are kept. (d) excavated bones of animals and birds are kept. 59. Which one of the following statements is correct about the Veerashaiva Movement initiated during mid-twelfth century in Karnataka?

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xxxiv | Social Science (a) It was initiated by Namdev and his companions. (b) It argued against Brahmanical ideas about caste and treatment of women. (c) It focused on worship of Vitthala. (d) It was against all forms of ritualism but promoted idol worship. 60. Consider the following two statements about ‘Bandagan’ in the early Delhi Sultanate and choose the correct answer: I. ‘Bandagan’ were special slaves purchased for military service and were

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trained with great care to hold the most important political officers in the kingdom. II. ‘Bandagan’ were totally dependent upon their masters. So, the Sultans could not trust and rely upon them. (a) I is false and II is true (b) I is true and II is false (c) Both I and II are true (d) Both I and II are false

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Social Science

Directions: Answer the following questions by selecting the most appropriate option. 1. What is the most important reason for the use of storyboards in Social Science teaching? (a) Narrating incidents (b) Producing attractive textbooks (c) Providing simplistic information (d) Encouraging discussion on the given narrative 2. Which of the following activities is most appropriate for developing an understanding of the Indian Parliament’s role and functions? (a) Flow diagram of functions and responsibilities (b) Discussion on newspaper report on Parliament disruption (c) Holding a youth parliament (d) Reading from the text 3. A teacher suggests that students make a table recording the number of buckets of water used by a student in a week. After this activity, she initiates a discussion on water usage and conservation. Which method of learning is the teacher encouraging in the class? (a) Problem solving method (b) Enquiry method

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September 2015

(c) Detective method (d) Case-study method 4. Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate choice: To organise knowledge and ideas, conceptual resources include timelines, summaries, _____ and ______. (a) information maps, concept maps (b) exploratory software, questions bank (c) teacher modelling, bar graphs (d) memory cues, review questions 5. Activity-based questions Science lessons: (a) Lengthy (b) Comprehensive (c) Joyful (d) Debatable

make

Social

6. Which one of the following methods is most suitable for developing an understanding of Social problems? (a) Role-play (b) Case-study (c) Film screening (d) Photo essay 7. A teacher wants her students to know about government schemes through primary sources. Which one of the following schemes is inappropriate?

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xxxvi | Social Science (a) A review of a book on government schemes (b) An interview with a Block Development Officer (c) A survey of schemes in the students’ neighbourhood (d) A report on expenditure incurred on various schemes in the students’ neighbourhood 8. Choose an appropriate and meaningful written assignment in Social Science from the following: (a) An original assignment that tests concepts (b) A summary of the chapter (c) Searching for an exact answer from the text book (d) The previous year’s assignments

(c) Visit to an exhibition (d) Internet search by students 11. Portfolio is an important tool of continuous and comprehensive evaluation because (a) it is easy implement. (b) it provides minimal information. (c) it indicates skills developed in the students. (d) it is compulsory. 12. Which type of learning sources are you encouraging your students to use, when you show them a historical monument? (a) Primary source (b) Textual source (c) Graphic resource (d) Folk resource

9. To prevent cynicism among students about democratic institutions, which of the two given options would be most appropriate? I. Emphasise ideal functioning and principles II. Indicate impossibility of changing institutions III. Emphasise that social inequality in inevitable IV. Indicate the role of informed public (a) Both I and II (b) Both I and IV (c) Both III and IV (d) Both III and II

13. ‘Imagine that you have come across two old newspapers reporting on the Battle of Seringapatam and the death of Tipu Sultan. One is a British paper and the other is from Mysore. Write the headline for each of the two newspapers.’ What is the reason for including this activity in the history textbook of Class VIII? (a) Develop writing skills in students (b) Develop the concept of diversity of views in students (c) Create a record of annexation by the British (d) Communicate British policies to the masses

10. Choose the best method from among the following to encourage roles in a Social Science class at the upper primary level. (a) Guided discussion on experiences (b) Lecture by an expert

14. The National Curriculum Framework (2005) suggests that Social Science must link a child’s life at school with: (a) Life inside the classroom (b) Life outside the classroom

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Previous Year Papers: September 2015 | xxxvii (c) Bookish knowledge (d) Teachers’ expectation 15. Choose the most appropriate option: Students at upper primary level can be asked to go for a field visit as a part of Social Science projects so that: (a) It is participative and fun for students. (b) It enables comparison of realities with the ideas and concepts. (c) It frees the teacher to do other activities while students are busy. (d) It fulfils the mandatory requirement of project completion. 16. Which one of the following methods is most suitable for teaching Geography at the upper primary level? (a) Discussion (b) Field visit (c) Story telling (d) Debate 17. The teaching of Social and political life textbooks at the upper primary level focuses on which one of the following approaches? (a) Learning through real life situations (b) Learning through definitions (c) Rote learning (d) Learning through synthesis of concepts 18. To teach the topic, ‘Different types of markets’, which one of the following projects would be most appropriate? (a) Making collage on markets from newspapers and magazines (b) Visiting a shopping mall for seeing products sold there (c) Comparing prices at which shopkeepers buy and sell products (d) Exhibit products bought from the market in the classroom

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19. In which one of the following scripts was most of the Ashokan inscriptions written? (a) Devanagari (b) Brahmi (c) Tamil (d) Olchiki 20. Some of the earliest Hindu temples had a hall where people could assemble. This place was known as: (a) Pradakshina patha (b) Mandapa (c) Gramabhojaka (d) Garbhagriha 21. Vinaya Pitaka is a book related to: (a) Sanskrit Grammar (b) Preachings of Mahavira (c) Thoughts of Zoroaster (d) Rules of the Buddhist Sangha 22. King Harshavardhana’s court poet, Banabhatta wrote his biography, the ‘Harshacharita’ in: (a) Urdu (b) Sanskrit (c) Prakrita (d) Hindi 23. The earliest ‘Viharas’ for both Jains and Buddhist monks were made of: (a) Wood (b) Brick (c) Soil (d) Stone 24. Among which of the three dynasties the ‘Tripartite struggle’, the long-drawn-out conflict over Kanauj was fought? (a) Gurjara-Pratihara, Pala, and Chola (b) Rashtrakuta, Chola, and Pala

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xxxviii | Social Science (c) Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Chola (d) Pala, Rashtrakuta, and Gurjara-Pratihara 25. Khanqahs in Sufism refer to: (a) Chanting of a name (b) Discussion of parables (c) Places where Sufi masters held their assemblies (d) A special kind of song 26. Which one of the following statements is correct about Chola temples? (a) Chola temples often became the nuclei of rural settlements only. (b) Chola temples were endowed with land by common people. (c) Chola temples were the hub of economic, social, and cultural life. (d) The making of iron images was the most distinctive feature of Chola temples. 27. Which one of the following statements is correct about Tawarikh written for the Sultans of Delhi Sultanate? (a) These were written in Urdu, the language of administration of the Delhi Sultanate. (b) Tawarikh were written by those who hardly ever resided in cities. (c) The authors of Tawarikh advised rulers on the need for good governance and just rule. (d) Tawarikh were not written by the authors to get rich rewards from the Sultans. 28. Who among the following reinterpreted verses from the Koran to argue for women’s education in the nineteenth century?

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Syed Ahmed Khan Ziauddin Barani Rokeya Sakhawat Hussain Mumtaz Ali

29. Choose an appropriate reason for providing students an open book exercise in a classroom. (a) Memorising details of a lesson (b) Reading a text with specific questions (c) Evaluation of unprepared students (d) Encouraging use of textual language 30. Study of Social Science subjects is vital as it enables children to: (a) Evaluate events from the past (b) Conserve natural resources (c) Learn details about democracy (d) Understand society and its environment 31. The Ural Mountains separate: (a) Africa and Asia (b) Asia and Europe (c) Africa and Europe (d) North America and South America 32. The place in the crust where the earthquake waves start is called: (a) Centre (b) Focus (c) Epicentre (d) Crater 33. Which one of the following layers of the atmosphere is most ideal for flying aeroplanes? (a) Troposphere (b) Stratosphere (c) Mesosphere (d) Thermosphere

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Previous Year Papers: September 2015 | xxxix 34. Which one of the following is the most important factor that influences the distribution of temperature on the earth? (a) Insolation (b) Solar radiation (c) Terrestrial radiation (d) Distance from sea 35. Which one of the following statements about the Amazon Basin is correct? (a) The Amazon basin falls in the equatorial region. (b) The Amazon river flows through the equatorial region in the western direction. (c) The Amazon river forms Delta covered with Mangrove forests. (d) The Amazon river basin drains portions from Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina. 36. Which one of the following is the highest roadway of India in the world? (a) Itanagar–Pasighat (b) Manali–Leh (c) Shillong–Silchar (d) Udhampur–Srinagar 37. Which one of the following techniques is not a mitigation mechanism to control landslides? (a) Hazard mapping to identify areas prone to landslides (b) Construction of retention walls to stop and slippage (c) Decreasing vegetation cover to arrest landslides (d) Ensuring surface drainage control works to restrict the movement of landslides

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38. Products of which one of the following are known as ‘Black Gold’? (a) Coal (b) Gold (c) Petroleum (d) Copper 39. Which of the following is not a nuclear power station of India? (a) Kalpakkam (b) Tarapur (c) Narora (d) Pokhran 40. Shifting agriculture is known as Milpa in: (a) India (b) Malaysia (c) Mexico (d) Brazil 41. Which one of the following industries comes under public sector? (a) Hindustan Aeronautic Limited (b) Sudha Dairy (c) Maruti Udyog Limited (d) Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited 42. Which one of the following statements about Gram Sabha is correct? (a) It is the meeting place of the Sarpanches of all the villages in a district. (b) The Secretary of the Gram Sabha is responsible for calling the meeting of the Gram Sabha and the Panchayat and keeps a record of the proceedings. (c) The developmental plans of all the Gram Panchayats are reviewed in the Gram Sabha. (d) The Gram Sabha regulates the money distribution among all Gram Panchayats.

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xl | Social Science 43. Consider the following two statements on people’s participation in democracy and choose the correct answer: I. Organising social movements is a way to challenge the government and its functioning in a democracy. II. Democracy allows people to participate but all sections of people are not able to do so. (a) I is true and II is false (b) Both I and II are true (c) I is false and II is true (d) Both I and II are false 44. Which one of the following is the Tibetan National epic? (a) Buddha Saga (b) Kesar Saga (c) Siddha Saga (d) Nirvana Saga 45. Consider the following two statements about the functions performed by ‘Patwari’ and choose the correct answer from the following: I. Patwari maintains and updates land records of a village or a group of villages. II. Patwari is responsible for providing information to the government about the crops grown in the area under her/ his jurisdiction. (a) I is true and II is false (b) Both I and II are true (c) I is false and II is true (d) Both I and II are false 46. Which of the following statements is incorrect about democracy? (a) In a democracy, the country’s citizens are allowed to elect whomever they want.

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(b) In a democracy, citizens enjoy certain freedoms. (c) In a democracy, a ruler has absolute powers to rule the country. (d) In a democracy, people can raise questions about the decisions. 47. Campaigns have led to new laws for the protection of women. In 2006, a law was framed to protect women from: (a) Domestic violence (b) Sexual harassment (c) Child abuse (d) Unequal wages 48. Which one of the following statements about media is incorrect? (a) Money is earned through advertisem*nts. (b) The technology that mass media uses keeps on changing. (c) An important function of mass media is to communicate information to the people. (d) There is regular interference on the part of the government in the functioning of media. 49. The cost to advertise on a news channel depends on: (a) The popularity of the channel (b) The demand of the viewers (c) The big business houses (d) The corporate sector 50. Consider the following two statements about Public Interest Litigation (PIL) and choose the correct answer: I. It is a mechanism to seek necessary information about the functioning of the government.

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Previous Year Papers: September 2015 | xli II. It is a mechanism that allows any individual or organisation to file petition to secure justice in the High Court or Supreme Court on behalf of those whose rights are violated. (a) I is true and II is false (b) Both I and II are true (c) I is false and II is true (d) Both I and II are false 51. Consider the following two statements about the ‘Question Hour Session’ of the Parliament and choose the correct answer: I. The member of Parliament seeks information about the working of the government. II. It is a mechanism through which the executive controls the legislature. (a) I is true and II is false (b) Both I and II are true (c) I is false and II is true (d) Both I and II are false 52. Consider the following two statements on judicial review and choose the correct answer: I. The Judiciary can strike down particular laws passed by the Parliament if there is a violation of the basic structure of the Constitution. II. A bill cannot become a law unless it is passed by the Judiciary. (a) I is true and II is false (b) Both I and II are true (c) I is false and II is true (d) Both I and II are false 53. According to Indian Constitution which one of the following statements is incorrect about Indian Secular State?

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(a) Indian state is not ruled by any specific religious group. (b) The State does not enforce any particular religion nor takes away religious freedom of individuals. (c) The State allows government institutions to display and promote values specific to a particular religion. (d) The State is not strictly separate from religion but it does maintain principled distance from religion. 54. The Indian State has: (a) Communist form of government (b) Capitalist form of government (c) Presidential form of government (d) Democratic form of government 55. Who among the following founded ‘Satyashodhak Samaj’ to propagate caste equality? (a) Ghasidas (b) Narayan Guru (c) Haridas (d) Jyotirao Phule 56. Who among the following was hanged to death for attacking his officers in Barrackpore on 29th March, 1857? (a) Bhagat Singh (b) Raj Guru (c) Sukhdev (d) Mangal Pandey 57. Which of the following statements about the British policy of ‘paramountcy’ is correct? (a) It declared that if the Indian ruler died without a male heir, his kingdom would be confiscated.

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xlii | Social Science (b) It claimed that the authority of the company was supreme; hence, its power was greater than that of the Indian states. (c) It emphasised the practical benefits of a system of European learning as opposed to oriental learning. (d) It declared that no other trading group in England could compete with East India Company. 58. Which one of the following groups of planets has rings around it? (a) Saturn, Venus, and Mars (b) Saturn, Jupiter, and Uranus (c) Saturn, Neptune, and Mars (d) Saturn, Venus, and Neptune 59. Why is the earth described as a ‘Geoid’? Choose the correct answer from the following:

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(a) Earth is slightly flattened at the poles. (b) Earth is neither too hot nor too cold. (c) Two-third of earth’s surface is covered with water. (d) Favourable conditions are available on earth to support life. 60. From the Earth, only one side of the moon is visible because it (a) takes more time in moving around the earth than the time to complete one spin. (b) takes exactly the same time in moving around the earth as the time to complete one spin. (c) only moves around the earth, but does not spin. (d) does not move around the earth, but only spins.

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Social Science

Directions: Answer the following questions by selecting the most appropriate option. 1. Which one of the following is not a component of maps? (a) Size (b) Symbols (c) Distance (d) Direction 2. What is the angle of inclination of the Earth’s axis with its orbit plane? 1° (a) 23 2 (b) 45° 1° 2 (d) 90° (c) 66

3. The ‘Janpad Panchayat’ has (a) many Zila Parishads under it. (b) many Municipal wards under it. (c) many Gram Sabhas under it. (d) many Gram Panchayats under it. 4. Consider the following two statements I and II on ‘Social advertisem*nts’ and choose the correct answer: I. Social advertisem*nts are those advertisem*nts that have larger message for the society. II. Social advertisem*nts are made only by the State.

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February 2015

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Both A and B are false Both A and B are true A is true and B is false A is false and B is true

5. Which one of the following states of India is popular for the ‘Kalamkari print’? (a) Tamil Nadu (b) Karnataka (c) Andhra Pradesh (d) Punjab 6. Which one of the following tribal groups is mainly confined to Uttarakhand? (a) Gonds (b) Mala Irular (c) Bhil (d) Bhotia 7. Who among the following rulers were best known for controlling the ‘Silk Route’ around 2000 years ago? (a) Kushans (b) Pandyas (c) Cheras (d) Cholas 8. Under ‘Subsidiary Alliance’, the East India Company forced the Indian rulers of the states to (a) have their independent armed forces, not get protection by the Company, but still pay towards its maintenance.

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xliv | Social Science (b) not have their independent armed forces, get protection by the Company, without any payment towards its maintenance. (c) have their independent armed forces, as well as get protection by the Company and pay towards its maintenance. (d) not have their independent armed forces, but only get protection by the Company and pay towards its maintenance. 9. Which one of the following is not a fact about Ahom? (a) The Ahom state was divided into clans called Paiks. (b) The Ahom society was very sophisticated. (c) The state of Ahom was created by suppressing the older political system of the Bhuiyans. (d) The Ahom state depended upon forced labour. 10. The term Hagiography refers to: (a) Writing of a saint’s biography (b) Writing of a saint’s autobiography (c) Writing of a ruler’s biography (d) Writing of a ruler’s autobiography 11. Which one of the following is a type of tropical grasslands? (a) Savanna (b) Steppe (c) Down (d) Pampas 12. Consider the following two statements I and II about food security and choose the correct answer:

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I. The ultimate aim of agricultural development is to increase food security. II. Food security refers to the existence of availability of food to all people in the times of natural calamities, when shortage of food occurs. (a) Both A and B are true (b) Both A and B are false (c) A is true and B is false (d) A is false and B is true 13. Which one of the following is not considered as a fossil fuel? (a) Petroleum (b) Natural gas (c) Firewood (d) Coal 14. Which one of the following may cause tremendous destruction only on the coastal areas? (a) Tsunami (b) Volcano (c) Tides (d) Earthquake 15. The innermost layer of the Earth is mainly made up of: (a) Silica and iron (b) Nickel and alumina (c) Silica and alumina (d) Nickel and iron 16. Which one of the following features is a result of depositional work of a river? (a) Meanders (b) Ox-bow lake (c) Waterfall (d) Flood plain

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Previous Year Papers: February 2015 | xlv 17. During an earthquake at what measurement on the Richter scale do things begin to fall? (a) 6.0 or higher (b) Over 7.0 (c) 2.0 (d) Over 5.0 18. Which one of the following was introduced with the coming of British art in India during the colonial period? (a) Mural art (b) Oil painting (c) Perspective (d) Miniatures 19. Around 2000 years ago, Varanasi was a famous craft centre where Shrenis were (a) Buddhist monasteries. (b) associations of craftspersons and merchants. (c) iron ploughshares used for agricultural production. (d) coins that have designs punched on to the metal. 20. Consider the following two statements I and II on manuscripts and inscriptions and choose the correct answer: I. Manuscripts were usually written on palm leaf or on the specially prepared bark of a tree known as birch. II. Inscriptions were written on relatively hard surfaces like stones and metals. (a) Both A and B are true (b) Both A and B are false (c) A is true and B is false (d) A is false and B is true 21. Which one of the following was the language of administration under the Delhi Sultans?

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Persian Hindi Arabic Urdu

22. In Buddhism, Bodhisattvas were: (a) Persons who attained enlightenment (b) Chinese Buddhist pilgrims (c) Buddhist scholars (d) Statues of Buddha 23. Which one of the following was not the condition to become a member of a Sabha in the Chola Empire? (a) They should be between 25 and 70 years of age. (b) They should have their own homes. (c) They should have knowledge of the Vedas. (d) They should be owners of land from which land revenue is collected. 24. The Rowlatt Act, 1919, was opposed because (a) it gave rights to separate electorates to Muslims. (b) it disallowed Indians from possessing arms. (c) it curbed the Fundamental Rights like Freedom of expression and strengthened police powers. (d) introduced diarchy in provinces. 25. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written in a book called the: (a) Atharvaveda (b) Yajurveda (c) Dharmashastras (d) Arthashastra 26. Garbhagriha, the most important part of some of the earliest Hindu temples, was

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xlvi | Social Science (a) the place in the temples where people could assemble. (b) caves elaborately decorated with sculptures and painted walls. (c) the place where the image of the chief deity was installed. (d) the place where religious rituals were not performed. 27. Which one of the following grasslands is the homeland of Native Americans? (a) Steppe (b) Pampas (c) Velds (d) Prairies 28. Breeding of fish in specially constructed tanks and ponds is known as: (a) Pisciculture (b) Horticulture (c) Sericulture (d) Viticulture 29. Bering Strait is a narrow stretch of shallow water that connects: (a) Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean (b) Arctic Ocean and Pacific Ocean (c) Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean (d) Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean 30. “On 21st March and 23rd September, the whole Earth experiences equal days and nights.” This is because (a) direct rays of the Sun fall on the equator, and at this position, none of the poles is titled towards the Sun. (b) direct rays of the Sun fall on the Tropic of Cancer, and at this position, one of the poles is titled towards the Sun. (c) direct rays of the Sun fall on the equator, and at this position, one of the poles is titled towards the Sun.

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(d) direct rays of the Sun fall on the Tropic of Capricorn, and at this position, none of the poles is titled towards the Sun. 31. What kind of language needs to be used in Social Science teaching? (a) Representative of dominant groups (b) Discriminatory (c) Neutral and sensitive (d) Difficult 32. Projects on democratic institutions could be done to show that (a) they can be analysed to identify features and challenges. (b) they are as described in the textbooks. (c) they are ineffective. (d) students must accept these institutions as they are. 33. Summative assessment is inappropriate for the following: (a) Deciding upon the grade (b) End of the term assessment (c) Monitoring the progress of teaching– learning process (d) Summarising student’s learning 34. What are pie diagrams useful for? (a) Showing features of a historical period (b) Comparing different amounts (c) Showing a particular amount in relation to the whole (d) Showing a pattern 35. Each chapter of the History textbook for Class VI is introduced by a young girl or a boy. Why do you think this strategy has been adopted by the textbook makers? (a) To show boys and girls can study history (b) To evaluate the connect of the chapter

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Previous Year Papers: February 2015 | xlvii (c) To inculcate a spirit of enquiry and discovery in students (d) To show how introduction can be done 36. “You are a peasant in Alauddin Khilji’s or Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign and you cannot pay the taxes demanded by the Sultan. What will you do?” In the above question what is being encouraged? (a) Historical imagination (b) Importance of sources (c) Respect for culture (d) Importance of literature 37. At the upper primary stage, Geography and Economics together can help in the following: (a) Developing a perspective on issues of environment, resources, and development (b) Understanding plurality (c) Developing knowledge of places and environment (d) Understanding optimal allocation of resources 38. When is formative evaluation conducted? (a) At the end of the session (b) Before teaching a new unit (c) During teaching–learning process (d) At the end of a unit 39. Biases, discrimination, and prejudices in the classroom could be avoided by (a) organising a lecture on humanity. (b) ignoring them, as children will grow out of them one day. (c) discussing different dimensions of social realities. (d) handing out the Preamble of the Constitution.

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40. Teacher ‘B’ is currently teaching a lesson on history of a region. What do you think ‘B’ should do? (a) Highlight the similarities and changes in different time periods (b) Highlight identities of different rulers (c) Encourage the students to remember the main features of the period (d) Highlight the similarities of the present with the past 41. What is the purpose of evaluation? (a) To identify problems students (b) To rank children (c) To encourage competition (d) To improve teaching–learning processes 42. Historical films are useful in Social Science teaching as they (a) concentrate on an individual’s problem. (b) portray history as fiction. (c) bring alive various dimensions of a specific social setting. (d) have good entertainment value. 43. What kind of outlook should be there towards Social Science textbooks? (a) As a document to be memorised (b) As an avenue for further enquiry (c) As a repository of knowledge (d) As a final statement 44. Tawa Matsya Sangh, a federation of fishworkers’ cooperatives is an organisation fighting for the rights of displaced forest dwellers in the State of: (a) Uttarakhand (b) Chhattisgarh (c) Jharkhand (d) Madhya Pradesh

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xlviii | Social Science 45. Which one of the following Fundamental Rights is not guaranteed to every arrested person under the criminal law as stated in Article 22 of the Constitution? (a) Confessions made in police custody can be used as evidence against the accused. (b) The Right not to be ill-treated or tortured during arrest or in custody. (c) The Right to be informed at the time of arrest of the offence for which the person is arrested. (d) The Right to be presented before a Magistrate within 24 hours of arrest. 46. The Members of Legislative Assembly are (a) elected by the people. (b) appointed by the Governor. (c) appointed by the Prime Minister. (d) appointed by the Chief Minister. 47. A coalition government implies (a) power sharing between two or more political parties after elections when no party has been able to get a clear majority. (b) power sharing between State Government and Panchayati Raj Institutions. (c) power sharing between government at the centre and state. (d) power sharing between executive and judiciary. 48. At the upper primary stage, Social Science comprises: (a) Geography, History, Political Science, and Economics (b) Political Science, Geography, History, and Sociology

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(c) History, Geography, Political Science, and Environmental Science (d) History, Geography, Economics, and Environmental Science 49. The position paper on Teaching of Social Science emphasises (a) respecting different opinions and examining ideas and practices. (b) accept social hierarchies. (c) increasing the use of textbooks. (d) encouraging memorisation. 50. Maps and diagrams in a Social Science textbook are relevant as they (a) add a new dimension to a concept. (b) are made by experts. (c) make a textbook attractive. (d) clarify a concept. 51. A case study of a social movement given to a class for discussion need not incorporate the following: (a) Solutions to the movement (b) Background of the movement (c) Objectives of the movement (d) Problems areas of the movement 52. While teaching Human Resources to Class VIII students, what core message would you like to promote? (a) Importance of people as a resource (b) Utilisation of resources by human beings (c) Distribution of population (d) Importance of physical resources 53. Which one of the following is not a function of the Gram Panchayat? (a) Executing Government schemes related to generation of employment in the villages

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Previous Year Papers: February 2015 | xlix (b) The construction and maintenance of the infrastructure of the villages (c) Levying and collecting local taxes (d) Gram Panchayat elects its Panchayat Secretary

(d) allows only the religious minorities to approach the court if they believe that their cultural and educational rights provided in the Constitution have been violated by the State.

54. Which one of the following does not fall within the purview of Civil Law? (a) Disputes related to sale of land (b) Harassing a woman for dowry (c) Filing a divorce case (d) Claiming custody of children

57. The ‘Civil Rights Movement’ was started in the USA (a) to demand equal rights and address racial discrimination for all the AfricanAmerican citizens. (b) to demand voting rights of the AfricanAmerican men. (c) to demand social security of the African-American senior citizens. (d) to demand voting rights of the AfricanAmerican women.

55. Which one of the following statements is incorrect about the judiciary? (a) Judiciary has the power to strike down laws passed by the Parliament. (b) The judicial system provides a mechanism for resolving disputes between citizens, between citizens and the government, but not between two State governments. (c) The legislature and the executive cannot interfere in the work of judiciary. (d) It plays a crucial role in protecting the Fundamental Rights of citizens. 56. The Right to Constitutional Remedies (a) allows only the linguistic minorities to approach the court if they believe that their cultural and educational rights provided in the Constitution have been violated by the State. (b) allows all citizens to approach the court if they believe that any of the Directive Principles of State Policy have not been fulfilled by the State. (c) allows all citizens to approach the court if they believe that any of their Fundamental Rights have been violated by the State.

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58. Which one of the following statements is not true about the Parliament of India? (a) In the matters dealing with finances, the government does not require Parliament’s approval. (b) The Parliament, while in session, begins with a question hour. (c) The Parliament consists of the President, the Rajya Sabha, and the Lok Sabha. (d) The Parliament in our system has immense powers because it is the representative of the people. 59. While teaching Social Science, a teacher must attempt to (a) focus upon remembering the details. (b) focus upon facts, values, and patterns. (c) focus only upon facts, but not on values. (d) focus only upon values, but not on facts.

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l | Social Science 60. Suppose the prescribed Social Science textbook is difficult for the students. What will you do? (a) Provide a variety of supplementary materials

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(b) Dictate summaries of each lesson (c) Use question–answer technique (d) Emphasise rote learning

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Social Science

Directions: Answer the following questions by selecting the most appropriate option. 1. In some areas, people started living in villages about 8000 years ago. Which of the following were among these areas? (a) Areas around Narmada (b) Sulaiman and Kirthar Hills (c) Ganga and Yamuna doab (d) Deccan and Konkan 2. Which of the following areas was known as Magadh in the ancient period? (a) South of Ganga (b) Between Ganga and Yamuna (c) North of Ganga (d) Between Yamuna and Chambal 3. Bharata was a group of people mentioned in the Rig Veda. They lived in: (a) South India (b) North India (c) West India (d) Northwest India 4. Rig Veda was originally composed in: (a) Prakrit (b) Sanskrit (c) Brahmi (d) Shauraseni 5. Which of the following was not a reason for hunter-gathers to move from place to place?

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September 2014

(a) Staying at one place would deplete resources (b) To follow movement of animals which they hunted (c) To fight for resources with another group of hunter gathers (d) To search for water resources 6. Which period is the longest in the human history? (a) Palaeolithic age (b) Megalithic age (c) Mesolithic age (d) Neolithic age 7. Ancient rocks have been found in: (a) Karnataka and Tamil Nadu (b) Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh (c) Andhra Pradesh (d) Madhya Pradesh 8. Which of the following is not a Harappan site? (a) Rakhigarhi (b) Sotkakoh (c) Ganweriwala (d) Chirand 9. Puru, Yadu, and Bharata are mentioned in Vedas as: (a) Janas (b) Rashtras (c) Rajanyas (d) Dasyus

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lii | Social Science 10. Shafi’i and Hanafi are: (a) Islamic architecture styles (b) Places in Saudi Arabia (c) Islamic schools of law (d) Two Islamic rulers 11. Dantidurga, who performed a ritual called hiranyagarbha, was a: (a) Chola king (b) Pratihara Chief (c) Rashtrakuta Chief (d) Pallava Chief 12. Who has written that Raziya was more able and qualified than her brothers? (a) Al-Biruni (b) Badayuni (c) Minhaj-i-Siraj (d) Ziauddin Barani 13. In an inscription, a Delhi Sultan is said to have been chosen by the God because he had the qualities like Moses and Salomon. Who was that Delhi Sultan? (a) Sikandar Lodi (b) Firoz Shah Tughlaq (c) Balban (d) Alauddin Khilji 14. In which revenue settlement during the East India Company’s rule was the village headman made responsible to collect revenue and pay it to the Company? (a) Zamindari Settlement (b) Permanent Settlement (c) Ryotwari Settlement (d) Mahalwari Settlement 15. In which ways did World War I alter the economic and political situation in India? (a) Political activities of the Indian National Congress were banned for six years.

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(b) Common people got benefited as there was a sharp fall in prices. (c) Many princely states rebelled against British rule. (d) Indian industries expanded as war created a demand for industrial goods. 16. Which of the following is an example of desert? (a) Ladakh (b) Sundarban (c) Konkan (d) Western Ghats 17. Which of the following statements regarding position of the Earth is true? (a) The axis of the Earth is a definite line 1 that makes an angle of with 66 its 2 orbital plane. (b) The axis of the Earth is a definite line 1 that makes an angle of with 23 its 2 orbital plane. (c) The axis of the Earth is an imaginary 1 line that makes an angle of 66 with 2 its orbital plane. (d) The axis of the Earth is an imaginary 1 line that makes an angle of 23 with 2 its orbital plane. 18. The circle of illumination is the (a) circle that divides the globe into two parts. (b) circle that divides the day from night on the globe. (c) position of the Earth on equinox when day and night are equal. (d) position of the Sun on a particular meridian at 12:00 o’clock in noon.

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Previous Year Papers: September 2014 | liii 19. Conventionally direction marked ‘A’ represents

25. The diagram represents: Cold air

Warm air

D Cardinal directions

(a) (b) (c) (d)

North South East West

20. Lakshadweep Islands are located in the: (a) Indian Ocean (b) Arabian Sea (c) Bay of Bengal (d) South China Sea 21. ‘Campos’ found in Brazil is a: (a) Tribe (b) Tropical grassland (c) Traditional dance (d) Tropical animal 22. The Kolkata port is situated on/in the: (a) Ganga Sagar (b) Bay of Bengal (c) River Hooghly (d) River Bhagirathi 23. Which continent is least populated in the world? (a) Europe (b) Australia (c) South America (d) Africa 24. ‘Gompas’ found in Ladakh are: (a) Buddhist monasteries/temples (b) Variety of goat

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Orographic rainfall Convectional rainfall Cyclonic rainfall Pre-monsoon rainfall

26. Which industry is often called backbone of modern industries? (a) Petroleum (b) Energy (c) Transport (d) Steel 27. In organic farming (a) chemical fertilizers are used to increase yield. (b) generic modification done to increase yield. (c) natural manures and pesticides are used. (d) only production of cotton has been allowed in India. 28. Which of the following is true with regard to food security? (a) Food security exists when government maintains buffer stock of grains for next five years. (b) Government imposes ban on grains exports for maintaining sufficient stock.

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liv | Social Science (c) Government encourages producing organic foods for better and secured health. (d) Food security exists when all people, at all-time have access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food. 29. Which of the following is a popular ecofriendly automobile fuel? (a) CNG (b) PNG (c) LPG (d) KG-6 30. Barometer is used to: (a) Measure rainfall (b) Measure temperature (c) Measure atmospheric pressure (d) Measure sea level 31. The apostle of Christ, St. Thomas is believed to have come to: (a) Goa (b) Karnataka (c) Tamil Nadu (d) Kerala 32. What is Zulu? (a) A tribe of South Africa (b) A language of South Africa (c) National animal of South Africa (d) A traditional dance South Africa 33. According to the Constitution, how many organs of the State are there? (a) Two (b) Three (c) Four (d) Five 34. Federalism refers to (a) existence of more than one level of government in the country.

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(b) federation of States to run the country. (c) only the Central Government has the right to make laws. (d) judiciary is the highest authority in the country. 35. If a politician in one state decides not to allow labourers from other states to work in his state, which Fundamental Right will be violated? (a) Right to equality (b) Right to freedom (c) Right against exploitation (d) Right to constitutional remedies 36. The Rajya Sabha can have at most: (a) 225 members (b) 235 members (c) 245 members (d) 260 members 37. The parliament in our system has immense power because (a) it has the power to make laws. (b) it has the power to overrule judiciary. (c) it is the representative of the people. (d) all powers are vested with the Parliament. 38. Function of the executive in Indian democracy is to: (a) Enact laws (b) Implement laws made by the Parliament (c) Elect the Prime Minister (d) Elect the President 39. The Mid-day Meal programme is said to have many positive effects. Which one of the following is not one of them? (a) Enrolment of poor children in schools has increased. (b) Caste prejudices have been reduced.

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Previous Year Papers: September 2014 | lv (c) Poor students can now concentrate on their studies as they do not have empty stomachs. (d) Poor children are getting high marks in examinations. 40. The wheel diagram shows typical employment opportunities to labourers in rural areas. For how long are they unable to get a regular job? Dec

Jan

Nov

Feb Harvesting

Oct

Mar Weeding Apr Transplanting Aug July

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Sapling preparation

Sept

May

Jun

Three months Four months Five months Six months

41. A method used in a Social Science classroom in which learners are asked to evaluate one another’s likeability is called as: (a) Self-assessment (b) Sociometric techniques (c) Case study (d) Psychometric techniques 42. Which of the following is an essential quality of creative thinking? (a) Convergent (b) Generative (c) Reflective (d) Deductive

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43. In order to understand the role of various issues during an election, which of the following would you most likely ask your students? (a) Analyse newspaper editorials regarding arguments against each other by political parties (b) Analyse each party’s properties and the types of policies it is most likely to support (c) Conduct survey in your locality for the popularity of political parties (d) Analyse and compare the time devoted by national news channels to different parties 44. Which of the following would you recommend for the peer learning in your classroom? (a) Drama (b) Computer-aided learning (c) Participation in routine activities only (d) Visit to research laboratories 45. Which of the following statements is correct about Social Science? (a) Social Science is not concerned with diverse concerns of society. (b) Social Science emphasises hom*ogeneity and rituals. (c) Social Science is a subjectivist discipline. (d) Social Science lays the foundation for an analytical and creative mindset. 46. In Social Science, the recent NCF position paper on examination reforms emphasises: (a) Open book exams (b) Continues assessment (c) Test performance (d) Flexible sitting arrangement while testing

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lvi | Social Science 47. Studying the life history of a village community to understand the education of the young ones is an example of which kind of data? (a) Secondary data (b) Narrative data (c) Clinical case-study data (d) Primary data

52. In the Indian pluralistic society, textbooks of Social Science should (a) reflect the majority opinion. (b) reflect the government’s views. (c) avoid controversies about all religions and social groups. (d) include and represent all religions and social groups.

48. The process of deriving inferences from observable facts is called: (a) Analysis (b) Exposition (c) Deduction (d) Brainstorming

53. In order to teach about equity, which of the following would be the most suitable method? (a) Give a lecture (b) Give a project (c) Assign field-work around the ideas of poverty and capitalism (d) Highlight the constitutional provisions to promote equity

49. To show the change in rainfall in a particular region in a decade, which of the following would be a suitable teaching aid? (a) Flow chart (b) Bar-diagram (c) Frequency polygon (d) Venn diagram 50. ‘To understand the importance of knowledge and wisdom of peers’—is valued in which perspective? (a) Cognitive (b) Emotive (c) Behaviourist (d) Constructivist 51. Which of the following teaching methods would be most effective in Social Science that teachers must use? (a) Ensure that learners have learnt the content by taking repetitive tests (b) Assign grades liberally (c) Engage learners in critical and thought provoking activities (d) Assign home assignments

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54. Which of the following will promote a social learning of rules, regulations, and values? (a) Project work (b) Group discussions (c) Book reading (d) Writing essays 55. Which of the following descriptions of a learner’s behaviour could be used to assess attitudes and values in a Social Science classroom? (a) Accepting all the ideas of the teachers (b) Insisting to work alone (c) Feeling free to ask questions (d) Getting good grades in academics 56. Diagnostic and remedial teaching in a Social Science classroom will involve? (a) Recognition of specific difficulty of the student (b) Providing a lot of material to read

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Previous Year Papers: September 2014 | lvii (c) Providing a lot of opportunity for discussions (d) Correcting the errors of students instantly 57. During teacher-education, micro-teaching refers to which of the following? (a) Teaching by observing the teachereducator minutely (b) Teaching a miniature classroom with peers role-playing as students (c) Teaching students in small groups (d) Teaching a small chunk of content at a time 58. When a teacher uses individual experiences in order to explain concepts in a Social Science class, then s/he is (a) making the lesson engaging. (b) channelising the energies of students. (c) promoting the ability to relate their local reality with the global context. (d) take care of the linguistic and cultural diversities among learners.

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59. Which of the following constitutes the cultural capital of a student? (a) Monetary and financial resources (b) Electronic equipment available for use by a student (c) Educational background of the family (d) Number of places that a student has visited 60. Which of the following is an aspect of progressive education in a Social Science classroom? (a) Segregation of learners (b) Functional intelligence (c) Emphasis on scoring in examination (d) Respect for popularity and multiplicity

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Social Science

Directions: Answer the following questions by selecting the most appropriate option. 1. The movement Vande Mataram in Andhra region was known as: (a) Non-cooperation (b) Swadeshi (c) Civil disobedience (d) Khilafat 2. The book Stri Purush Tulana, which is based on criticism of the social differences between men and women, was authored by which of the following scholars? (a) Pandita Ramabai (b) Begum Rokeya (c) Tarabai Shinde (d) Rassundari Devi 3. The Christian missionaries in the 19th century wanted to introduce Christian education in India to: (a) Educate elite class (b) Improve moral character of the people (c) Educate masses (d) Make Indians loyal to company government 4. With the industrialisation of Britain in the 19th century (a) India became the main supplier of raw materials to British industries. (b) India provided cheap labour to British industries.

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February 2014

(c) India became vast market for industrial products. (d) many industries were established in India. 5. In which land revenue settlement, the Rajas and Taluqdars were recognised as Zamindars? (a) Ryotwari settlement (b) Mahalwari settlement (c) Permanent settlement (d) Pattidari settlement 6. Begum Hazrat Mahal took an active part in organising the uprising against British at: (a) Kanpur (b) Lucknow (c) Faizabad (d) Allahabad 7. Which of the following Acts transferred the administration of India from the East India Company to British Crown? (a) Act of 1833 (b) Act of 1858 (c) Act of 1861 (d) Act of 1868 8. In the medieval Assam, paiks were: (a) Forced labourers (b) Plantation workers (c) Water carriers (d) Members of conscript army

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Previous Year Papers: February 2014 | lix 9. ‘Manigramam’ and ‘Nanadesi’ were: (a) Famous towns during Chola period (b) Famous guilds of south India (c) Administrative units of Cholas (d) Famous villages given as Brahmadeya to Brahmanas 10. Cited below are some sites and presentday states where the evidences of grains and bones of domestic animals have been found. Name of the site

Present-day state

Chirand

Kashmir

II.

Koldihwa

Uttar Pradesh

III.

Burzahom

Andhra Pradesh

IV.

Hallur

Bihar

The correct match of the above two column is: (a) (b) (c) (d)

I-D; II-B; III-A; IV-C I-C; II-D; III-B; IV-A I-A; II-C; III-D; IV-B I-B; II-A; III-C; IV-D

11. The rivers Ganga and Yamuna are mentioned ______ in the Rig Veda. (a) around a thousand times (b) a hundred times (c) twelve times (d) once 12. Which one of the following features is common to both Buddhism and Jainism? (a) Only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. (b) Both these religions were supported mainly by traders. (c) Man had to give up everything including their clothes to gain salvation. (d) The constant craving for more could be removed by following moderate path.

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13. Who among the following said, ‘The upper castes had no right to their land because in reality, the land belonged to indigenous people, the so-called low castes’? (a) Shri Narayan Guru (b) Haridasa Thakur (c) Ghasidas (d) Jyotirao Phule 14. Which one of the following statements is appropriate in reference to the construction of Audience Hall (Diwan-i-Aam) by Shah Jahan? (a) White marble of the Taj Mahal is a symbol of peace. (b) King’s justice would treat the high and the low as equals. (c) Contentedness in the subject helps to rule better. (d) It was a necessity to bring the rate of crimes under control. 15. Who among the following could not be a member of a Sabha as laid down in the inscriptions from Uthiramerur in Chengalpattu of Tamil Nadu? (a) Those between the age of 35 and 70 years (b) Those having knowledge of the Vedas (c) Those who have their own homes (d) Those who have not submitted their accounts 16. Which one of the following facts does not hold true about Gramabhojaka, the village headman in the northern parts of India? (a) He was often the largest landowner. (b) His post was hereditary. (c) The king never used him to collect taxes. (d) Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land.

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lx | Social Science 17. Which property of soil is determined by the parent rock? (a) Rate of weathering and humus (b) Thickness of soil (c) Accumulation of soil (d) Chemical properties, permeability, and texture 18. Minerals that lie near the earth surface are simply dug out by the process known as: (a) Quarrying (b) Calcination (c) Open cast mining (d) Sintering 19. The oldest rocks in the world are found in: (a) Western Australia (b) South Africa (c) South India (d) Hawaii Islands 20. Activity that changes raw material into products of more value is called: (a) Primary activity (b) Secondary activity (c) Economic activity (d) Tertiary activity 21. The Apache and the Crow are: (a) Tribes of North America (b) Nomads bands of Kenya (c) Nomads bands of the USA (d) Documentaries on environment

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Orange country of South Africa Kashmir valley of India Mediterranean region Queensland in Australia

24. Which one of the following helps the ships to navigate? (a) Area of high tides (b) Area of low tides (c) Area where the warm ocean currents and cold currents meet (d) Area of ocean currents 25. The radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by: (a) Exosphere (b) Mesosphere (c) Stratosphere (d) Thermosphere 26. The balance in the environment gets disturbed if (a) the relative number of species is not disturbed. (b) human activities continue to preserve natural habitats. (c) indiscriminate killing of wildlife is banned. (d) deforestation and soil erosion continue.

22. Which of the following is an example of Sunrise industry? (a) IT industry (b) Cooking oil industry (c) Paper industry (d) Jute industry

27. Which of the following is not a principle of sustainable development? (a) Maximum use of natural resources (b) Respect and care for all forms of life (c) Change in personal attitude and practices towards environment (d) Improvement in the quality of human life

23. Which region is known as the Orchard of the World?

28. Two cities N and M are located at 15° E and 15°W of Greenwich, respectively. What will

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Previous Year Papers: February 2014 | lxi be the difference in time between these two cities? (a) 30 minutes (b) 1 hour (c) 1 hour 30 minutes (d) 2 hours 29. The minimum Wages Act (a) specifies that minimum wages should be given to labourers. (b) specifies that the wages should not be below a specific minimum. (c) allows employers to decide minimum wages of their employees. (d) covers only government employees under the organised sector. 30. Which Article of the Constitution prescribes that the enforcement of any disability arising out of ‘untouchability’ shall be an offence punishable in accordance with law? (a) Article 15 (b) Article 17 (c) Article 21 (d) Article 28 31. What is the key reason of inequality in India? (a) Poverty (b) Religion (c) Caste (d) Sex 32. Right to the constitutional remedies (a) protects the fundamental Rights of citizen. (b) is about the Constitution remedying itself by amendments. (c) excludes the Right to Education Act, 2009. (d) gives judiciary the power to strike down a law enacted by the parliament.

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33. According to the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005, (a) only sons or male members of the family can have the right in family property. (b) only wife has right to inherit property of her deceased husband. (c) sons, daughters, and their mothers can get an equal share of family property. (d) followers of the Arya Samaj will not be governed by this Act. 34. Which of the following comes under the function of the State Government? (a) To maintain peaceful relationship with Pakistan and Bangladesh. (b) Decision to discontinue the Board Examination for Class X. (c) Introduction of new train between New Delhi and Vasco da Gama. (d) Introduction of a new design of 1000 rupee note. 35. Dropout rates of Dalit and Adivasi girls are highest because (a) their parents do not value education. (b) of poverty and social discrimination. (c) of non-availability of all-girls schools. (d) benefit of their education will be available to their in-law’s family. 36. Which one of the following is not a social advertisem*nt? (a) Atithi Devo Bhava (b) Life Insurance—Zindagi Ke Saath Bhi, Zindagi Ke Baad Bhi (c) Lane driving is life driving (d) Save every drop of water 37. Identify the issue which is hardly focused upon by the media despite its significance. (a) Murders and killings

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lxii | Social Science (b) Demolition of buildings (c) Gender sensitivity (d) Drinking water 38. With reference to judiciary, identify the odd one out of the following provisions. (a) Separation of powers (b) Once appointed to office, it is very difficult to remove a judge. (c) The judges are appointed without any interference from the government. (d) The tenure of service for judges is fixed. 39. D. K. Basu Guidelines laid down by the Supreme Court of India are about (a) prevention of sexual harassment of women at workplaces. (b) protection of children from sexual offences in schools. (c) procedures to be used by various agencies for the arrest, detention, and interrogation of any person. (d) procedures to be followed for the reelection in a constituency. 40. In Subhash Kumar vs State of Bihar (1991), the Supreme Court held that the (a) right to freedom includes expressing criticism of the government. (b) right to life includes the right to the enjoyment of pollution-free water and air. (c) right to freedom of religion does not include criticising the other religions. (d) right to equality should force private companies to provide reservation in jobs. 41. Which characteristic of the traditional external examination is excluded in the present school-based assessment? (a) Emphasis on systematic learning

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(b) Emphasis only on the scholastic aspects of learning (c) Consideration of the needs of the learner (d) Rapport among learners, teachers, and parents close to each other 42. Before assigning a new type of assignment, a teacher must tell her students (a) that the forthcoming assessment will be/will not be based on this assignment. (b) about the weighing of this assignment in their final result. (c) about her expectation from students in terms of learning from doing the assignment. (d) about the requisite previous experience students must possess for doing this assignment. 43. Four children of Class VIII were asked to create some creative articles from waste materials. On completion of the assignment, the teacher gave the following observations. On the basis of this information, adjudge the most creative child. (a) Most of the time uses imagination and is conscious not to use expensive material. (b) Discusses with teacher constantly and asks for approval at each step. (c) With little guidance, can make reasonably good items. (d) Skilful and possesses a vision to convert waste materials into productive items. 44. Projects in Social Science are useful:

I. in theme-based tasks II. if they do not involve collection and analysis

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Previous Year Papers: February 2014 | lxiii III. if based on contexts from within the text IV. for the group work in class or at home

Which two alternatives from the above forms are correct? (a) II and IV (b) I and II (c) I and IV (d) III and IV

48. A student of Class VIII is extremely upset over her inability to write on a prescribed topic. Her teacher advises that she may approach the assignment by breaking it into parts which are more familiar to her. Which of the following is the most appropriate with this method? (a) At the outset, write the topic that is familiar and then add material on how the topic is related to the assignment. (b) Prepare a directory of books, articles, and websites about the topic. (c) Find two sources of information on the topic and find their common features. (d) Prepare a paper and read-it to a friend to determine which parts need to be revised.

45. Capacity Building Programmes are essential for the teachers of Social Science because (a) they are related to their professional growth. (b) their increment in salary is contingent upon Capacity Building Programme. (c) schools have been asked to do so by the CBSE to keep the teachers busy. (d) they require conceptual and pedagogical clarity in different components of Social Science. 46. In a Social Science class, which one of the following is a suitable method for underlining the phenomenon that common areas and open spaces in rural areas are disappearing fast? (a) Make presentation with the help of computers (b) Discussion on the basis of text prescribed (c) A survey project (d) Group discussion over the topic 47. The National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986, suggested the development of ‘integrated programmes’ for the: (a) Education of boys and girls together (b) Education of the mentally disabled

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49. Which of the following approaches has been used extensively to familiarise students with ideas in the textbook Social and Political Life published by the NCERT? (a) Timeline (b) Graph (c) Chart (d) Storyboard 50. The content of Social Science should (a) provide comprehensive information about the social issues and their solutions. (b) exclusively focus on issues related to social reality and should not encourage scientific method of research. (c) aim at raising students’ awareness about history, geography, and

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lxiv | Social Science politics of India and the interconnection among these. (d) aim at raising students’ awareness through critically exploring and questioning familiar social realities. 51. To make textbooks representatives of all regions and social groups, (a) contents relating to all regions and social groups should be added in the textbooks. (b) relevant local content should be a part of teaching–learning process drawing on local resources. (c) textbooks should be written in all languages mentioned in the Schedule VIII of the Constitution of India. (d) common issues among regions must be highlighted exclusively to promote the spirit of federal republic. 52. To sensitise students about the gender issues and role of socialisation in gender discriminations, schools should (a) encourage team teaching and include male as well as female teachers. (b) organise seminars on gender sensitivity by inviting eminent speakers. (c) ask teachers to use case studies and give concrete examples. (d) make rules that boys are not allowed to practice discrimination against girls. 53. While discussing the functions of the State Government, issues related to health, water, transport, etc., may be discussed to (a) make students aware how their State is doing on these accounts. (b) make students remember about the role of the Government in these areas. (c) allow learners to understand these issues and express their critical views.

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(d) enlighten students to organise movements for better facilities for all. 54. The National Curriculum Framework, 2005, proposes that Geography should be taught to (a) instruct the role of diverse geographical features of India in its economic growth. (b) guide students about the destructive effect of natural disasters on the economy of India. (c) focus on the optimum extraction and utilisation of natural resources. (d) inculcate a critical appreciation for conservation and environmental concerns. 55. Regarding pedagogy and resources for Social Science, the National Curriculum Framework, 2005, says that teaching of Social Science must adopt (a) strategies that help students to remember facts longer time. (b) mind maps that enhance quick retrieval of information. (c) methods that promote creativity and critical perspective. (d) approach involving maximum teaching aids to promote intelligence. 56. Scaffolding in a Social Science classroom primarily intends to (a) strengthen the desirable outcome in the summative assessment. (b) help the students till the time independent thinking is possible. (c) assure the improvement of self-regulatory skills. (d) enable the students to envisage ideas. 57. The ability to break down information into smaller pieces and to establish relation among parts and the whole is:

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Previous Year Papers: February 2014 | lxv (a) (b) (c) (d)

Understanding Applying Analysing Remembering

58. In order to optimise the time students spend on academic activities, a teacher should (a) plan, teach, and impose timetable for transition time and classroom activities. (b) assign homework at least twice a week in core content areas. (c) ask students to read new topics before discussing them in class. (d) present a new material followed by a question-and-answer session on the material. 59. Inductive learning is contradictory to which of the following approaches? (a) Simulation (b) Expository teaching

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(c) Mastery learning (d) Structure training 60. Which of the following statements is true with regard to effective reflective practice in Social Science teaching? (a) Peer tutoring should be done carefully because it affects tutoring student’s own reflective potential. (b) Reflective practice should reject those students’ inputs that challenge teaching practices for the sake of classroom discipline. (c) Reflection must exclude those links to conceptual frameworks that limit inquiry and problem solving. (d) Teacher must create atmosphere of trust and flexibility to every learning situation.

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lxvi | Answer Keys

ANSWER KEYS

February 2016 1. (c) 6. (d) 11. (d) 16. (b) 21. (a) 26. (b) 31. (b) 36. (d) 41. (a) 46. (a) 51. (c) 56. (a)

2. 7. 12. 17. 22. 27. 32. 37. 42. 47. 52. 57.

(a) (c) (b) (b) (b) (a) (c) (c) (d) (b) (b) (c)

3. (d) 8. (d) 13. (a) 18. (a) 23. (c) 28. (c) 33. (b) 38. (b) 43. (d) 48. (d) 53. (d) 58. (c)

4. 9. 14. 19. 24. 29. 34. 39. 44. 49. 54. 59.

(a) (d) (b) (c) (d) (d) (c) (a) (c) (c) (a) (c)

5. 10. 15. 20. 25. 30. 35. 40. 45. 50. 55. 60.

(a) (a) (c) (c) (b) (c) (a) (b) (c) (a) (d) (c)

3. (b) 8. (a) 13. (b) 18. (c) 23. (a) 28. (d) 33. (b) 38. (c) 43. (b) 48. (d) 53. (c) 58. (b)

4. 9. 14. 19. 24. 29. 34. 39. 44. 49. 54. 59.

(a) (b) (b) (b) (d) (b) (a) (d) (b) (a) (d) (a)

5. 10. 15. 20. 25. 30. 35. 40. 45. 50. 55. 60.

September 2015 1. (d) 6. (b) 11. (c) 16. (b) 21. (d) 26. (c) 31. (b) 36. (b) 41. (a) 46. (c) 51. (a) 56. (d)

2. 7. 12. 17. 22. 27. 32. 37. 42. 47. 52. 57.

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Answer Keys | lxvii

February 2015 1. (a) 6. (d) 11. (a) 16. (d) 21. (a) 26. (c) 31. (c) 36. (a) 41. (d) 46. (a) 51. (a) 56. (c)

2. 7. 12. 17. 22. 27. 32. 37. 42. 47. 52. 57.

3. (d) 8. (d) 13. (c) 18. (c) 23. (a) 28. (a) 33. (c) 38. (c) 43. (b) 48. (a) 53. (d) 58. (a)

4. 9. 14. 19. 24. 29. 34. 39. 44. 49. 54. 59.

5. 10. 15. 20. 25. 30. 35. 40. 45. 50. 55. 60.

(a) (d) (c) (c) (c) (c) (b) (c) (b) (d) (d) (b)

3. (d) 8. (d) 13. (d) 18. (b) 23. (b) 28. (d) 33. (b) 38. (b) 43. (b) 48. (c) 53. (c) 58. (c)

4. 9. 14. 19. 24. 29. 34. 39. 44. 49. 54. 59.

(b) (a) (d) (d) (a) (a) (a) (d) (a) (b) (b) (c)

5. 10. 15. 20. 25. 30. 35. 40. 45. 50. 55. 60.

3. (b) 8. (a) 13. (d) 18. (a) 23. (c) 28. (d)

4. 9. 14. 19. 24. 29.

5. 10. 15. 20. 25. 30.

September 2014 1. (b) 6. (a) 11. (c) 16. (a) 21. (b) 26. (d) 31. (d) 36. (c) 41. (b) 46. (b) 51. (c) 56. (a)

2. 7. 12. 17. 22. 27. 32. 37. 42. 47. 52. 57.

February 2014 1. (b) 6. (b) 11. (d) 16. (c) 21. (a) 26. (d)

2. 7. 12. 17. 22. 27.

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lxviii | Answer Keys 31. (a) 36. (b) 41. (b) 46. (c) 51. (b) 56. (b)

32. 37. 42. 47. 52. 57.

(a) (d) (c) (c) (c) (c)

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33. (c) 38. (d) 43. (d) 48. (c) 53. (c) 58. (a)

34. 39. 44. 49. 54. 59.

(b) (c) (c) (d) (d) (b)

35. 40. 45. 50. 55. 60.

(b) (b) (d) (d) (c) (d)

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Unit I

History

Chapter 1 When, Where, and How Chapter 2 Earliest Human Civilisation and Processes Chapter 3 State Formation and Social Change Chapter 4 Emperies, Social and Cultural Exchange Chapter 5 Change and Continuity Chapter 6 Emergence of New Power and Social Change Chapter 7 Era of Rapid Changes Chapter 8 Nationalist Movement and Social Reform Chapter 9 India after Independence

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Credits Below mentioned figures are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International, 3.0 Unported, 2.5 Generic, 2.0 Generic and 1.0 Generic license. Chapter 1 Figure

Web link

Fig. 1.1

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rock_Shelter_15,_Bhimbetka_02.jpg

Page number 5

Fig. 1.2

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rock_Shelter_3,_Bhimbetka_02.jpg

Fig. 1.3

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Street_-_Mohenjodaro.JPG

Fig. 1.4

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Step-well_(16680979711).jpg

Fig. 1.5

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dhauli_ei02-63.jpg

Fig. 1.6

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/AsokaKandahar.jpg

Fig. 1.7

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Copper_plate_inscription.jpg

Fig. 1.8

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Punch-marked_Coin_-_Silver_-_Circa_5th_

Century_BCE-2nd_Century_CE_-_ACCN_ASB_10_-_Indian_Museum_-_Kolkata_2014-04-04_4324. JPG Fig. 1.9

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/KushanCoinage.jpg

Fig. 1.10

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Gold_dinar_of_Skandagupta.jpg

9 9

Fig. 1.12

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Hicky%27s_Bengal_Gazette.pdf

Chapter 2 Figure

Web link

Fig. 2.2

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Pre-history-maluti.jpg

Page number

Fig. 2.3

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Great_bath_view_Mohenjodaro.JPG

Fig. 2.4

a) https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Street_-_Mohenjodaro.JPG

Fig. 2.5

a) h ttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Seal_-_Unicorn_-_Harappan

b) https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dholavira-1.jpg 23

Civilization_-_Human_Evolution_Gallery_-_Indian_Museum_-_Kolkata_2014-04-04_4485.jpg b) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Harappan_small_figures.jpg Fig. 2.6

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:010_glass,_carnelian_and_jasper_beads_5th_c._GMP.

JPG Fig. 2.7

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Lothal_Dockyard.jpg

Below mentioned figure is licensed under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication. Chapter 1 Figure

Web link

Fig. 1.11

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Ain-i-Akbari_%28The_Chronicles_of_

Page number 10

Emperor_Akbar%29%2C_Lahore%2C_Pakistan%2C_c._1822_-_Royal_Ontario_Museum_-_ DSC09640.JPG

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CHAPTER

When, Where, and How

LeArNiNG ObjeCtives • • • •

Understand the importance of studying history Know the importance of time and space in history Become aware of various kinds of sources to know history Analyse the present on the basis of past events

iNtrOdUCtiON We know that history is a part of social science, but the question is: ‘Is it only a subject of something from the past? Why the study of history is so important for us? Why do we include this as a subject in our school curriculum? How do we know about our past?’ These are some of the questions that will be discussed in this chapter, and we should try to understand history as a discipline. Social science has a specific nature, which is based on the principle of understanding of society. As a subject, Social science is a group of various disciplines such as Political Science, Geography, Economics, and History. Most of the disciplines of Social science deal with the present scenario of society, but history is the only discipline that not only deals with present but also deals about our past. History gives us a base to understand the present scenario on the basis of past occurrences and experiences. When we try to understand our past and analyse we did the good or bad, we do it in the present and that is how we try to analyse our past in present and also unfold our past from the canvas of present. But, while doing this analysis we commit some blunders. Just imagine how people travelled (near and far) in the past from one place to another. How was the life in absence of fire and agriculture? What were the ways of survival? Can we think some of such situations and elaborate about life in the past? History is a subject that gives us insight to understand our past through a journey with time and space. However, another pertinent question is how do you come to know about our past? What are the ways that help us to know our past? Are these ways authentic and qualitative? Some other kinds of questions are: why do we introduce history at school level? What is to be taught in history at various levels? Why do we teach what we teach?

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4 | Chapter 1 When, Where, and How History is not merely a subject; rather, it is a powerful tool that facilitates interaction between the present and the past. It is important to understand that there are various ideas about various civilisations across the world, and Indian civilisation is considered as one the oldest civilisation. However, along with this, we should also understand that the qualities and characteristics prevailed to define a state is different from the present. In addition, when we try to see history only from the present point of view or to legitimate present situation and scenario, it takes us to a different kind of problem. History is one subject that not only develops our understanding about our society in the past but also develops the ability to become familiar about the present form of society that emerged after a long journey of freedom struggle. Therefore, introducing history as a subject in school education facilitates the learners the conceptualisation of their own past, which will help them to analyse their present.

HOW TO KNOW OUR PAST There are several ways to know about our past such as through monuments, reading books and the available written materials that introduce us to the past, listening to folk songs, and so on. However, the fundamental question is: what is the source? It is needless to say that the source is most important to know about the past especially if you want to know the history of any particular time and space. Another question which rises here is that what is a historical source? A material that has some important and useful and reliable information of history about a particular time is called a source in history such as books, monuments, folk songs, stories, and so on. In history, sources are most important because they are the base of understanding about the past. These sources give us an insight to understand the contemporary situation of any particular time period. There are many types of sources, but for convenience, all these sources are divided into two broad categories, namely primary sources and secondary sources. Apart from these two sources, historians also use two more categories, namely archaeological sources and literary sources.

TYPES OF SOURCES

Primary Source of History The primary sources are sources that are not manipulated by anyone. These are more reliable and authentic sources. Primary sources are like chronicles, travellers accounts, coins, monuments, palaces, forts, royal farmans, official orders, court bulletins, historical letters, religious literature, inscriptions, and so on.

Secondary Sources of History The secondary sources of History are based on primary sources. These types of sources are basically interpretations of primary sources. These sources are also important because they present different types of aspects and interpretations of the same source.

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Unit I History | 5

Archaeological Sources Archaeological sources are those ancient ruins, remains, and monuments that are recovered as a result of excavation and exploration of various sites. As in Madhya Pradesh, excavation and exploration near the river Narmada helped us to know how people survived during this period which is known as a period of hunting and gathering. Another such example is Bhimbetka caves where wall paintings depict the contemporary lifestyle of ancient people. We can also assume about their hunting and other such activities. Figures 1.1 and 1.2 present the life of ancient people.

Figure 1.1 A mythical animal and humans, Bhimbetka

Figure 1.2 Prehistoric rock paintings, Bhimbetka

Another pertinent question is how we can authenticate the originality of archaeological sources with reference to their time period. The archaeologists have some processes through which the

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6 | Chapter 1 When, Where, and How chronology of any source can be identified. This process is known as radiocarbon dating, which is based on scientific inquiry. We are aware of the fact that throughout a period, many monuments had got buried due to various reasons. To know and reveal about these time periods, we have to excavate these buried areas. This is a work of professional excellence and skill, where everything is procured carefully. The process of excavation helped us to known about Mohenjo-Daro (see Figure 1.3) and Dholavira (see Figure 1.4). Many other such facts of history have been and can be unrevealed with the help of archaeology.

Figure 1.3 A street of Mohenjo-Daro

Figure 1.4 Reservoir at Dholavira

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Unit I History | 7

Inscriptions Inscriptions are a kind of archaeological source. These inscriptions are considered as the most valuable historical sources, because inscription gives us written information about a time period. These inscriptions are old and their language is not known to the people in present time. If the languages of these inscriptions are unknown, then how one can read and make sense of these inscriptions is an important question. With the help of epigraphy, these inscriptions can be read and analysed. We should also know that the writing on inscription is known as palaeography. The inscriptions are usually available on rocks, pillars, stones, slabs, walls of buildings, different kinds of seals, and copper plates. Mostly these inscriptions are related to royal proclamations and commandments. Other inscriptions are related to religious activities such as the ones found in temple

Figure 1.5 A Ashoka’s inscription

Figure 1.6 Ashokan inscription, Kandahar, Afghanistan

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8 | Chapter 1 When, Where, and How walls, pillars, stupas, and monasteries. These inscriptions and their location not only provide valuable information but also help us to understand the sociocultural, religious, and political aspects of contemporary life, such as King Ashoka’s inscriptions (see Figures 1.5 and 1.6) help historians to understand the outer boundaries of Ashokan empires.

Figure 1.7 A Copper plate inscription, Karnataka, 6th Century CE

Numismatic Coins are a part of our daily life but have you ever thought about the study of coins? This study is known as numismatics. Coins are another source of historical information. There were different types of coins in different eras such as the coins of 500 BC are known as punch-marked coins. There was no fixed shape on the punch-marked coins; these are pieces of metal that are punched by sign or symbol, and that is why these coins are called punch-marked coins. In the era of Kushans, gold coins were introduced first time in India. Gupta period is known for their silver coins. Now you can see that various kinds of metals are used to make coins in different areas. Is there any difference in using different types of metals to make coins? Metals used in the coins actually represent the economy of the time or kingdom, for example, when gold was sued for coin making, it shows that the economy was in better conditions, and if silver was used, the economy is less prosperous in comparison to the gold economy. Coin shapes also help to understand the metal melting technology of a particular time period. Coin inscriptions are also important because they help us to know about the ruling person of that era. Some examples of coins are shown in Figures 1.8–1.10.

Literary Sources Literature is important because it is the mirror of a society. Literature gives insight to understand about society, political structure, economy, and their religious rituals of a particular time. There are different types of literature available like religious literature, secular literature, accounts of foreigners, state chronicles, and so on. The religious accounts are available in a large range and are

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Unit I History | 9 commonly divided into two main categories: Brahmanical and Non-Brahmanical literary sources. Brahmanical literature includes Vedas, Puranas, Upanishads, and the great epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata). The religious literature of Jains and Buddhist are known as Non-Brahmanical literary sources of history.

Figure 1.8 Punch-marked coins

Figure 1.9 Gold coins of Kushans

Figure 1.10 Gupta’s coins

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10 | Chapter 1 When, Where, and How There are some literatures that are not related to any particular ideology. These sources are called secular literatures such as Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Patanjali and Panini writings, dramas of Kalidas, and Kalhana’s Rajatarangini. All these historical texts have great value. Time to time foreigners visited India. Some of them wrote some valuable accounts of their travels like Megasthenes’ Indica, Ptolemy’s Geography, and Al-Beruni’s Kitab Al-Hind. These are some of the well-known accounts written by foreigners. Accounts of foreigners are important because they provide information related to contemporary time and also validate the other contemporary texts. There are other types of literature sources such as state chronicles. State chronicles are important because they provide systematic and authentic information about state affairs, such as revenue records. They also represent the state’s perspective about certain issues. Especially in medieval era, state-sponsored chronicles were prepared at large scale. The British also prepared such chronicles which are known as gazette. There are some examples of state-sponsored chronicles such as Ain-i-Akbari, Revenue Records, and Bengal Gazette (see Figures 1.11 and 1.12).

Figure 1.11 Ain-i-Akbari

Figure 1.12 Bengal Gazette

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Unit I History | 11

TIME AND SPACE CONCEPT IN HISTORY How do we know about a particular time? In history, the concept of time is very significant because in absence of this concept, it is difficult to understand the changes occurring time to time. In history, we are all familiar with the concepts of BC and AD. Modern history writings started in the west and the birth of Christ is considered as a benchmark in the timeline of history. In this context, we basically use two major terms BC, which mean Before Christ and AD means Anno Domini. Some historians also use CE instead of AD and BCE instead of BC, in which CE means Common Era and BCE means Before Common Era.

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ Narmada River banks are the first site where the evidences are found related to hunting and gathering. ➨ The evidence of growing wheat and barley during 8000 BC was found in Sulaiman and Kirthar Hills in the Northwest of Indian subcontinent. ➨ Northeast and the Vindhyas are the places where people began to rear animals such as sheep, goat, cattle, and so on. ➨ The earliest cites flourished on the banks of the River Indus and its tributaries 4700 years ago. ➨ New cites were developed on the banks of the River Ganga and its tributaries 2500 years ago. ➨ Social science has a specific nature, which is based on the principle of understanding of society. ➨ As a subject, social science is a group of various disciplines such as political science, geography, economics, and history. ➨ History gives us a base to understand the present scenario on the basis of past occurrences and experiences. ➨ History is not merely a subject; rather, it is a powerful tool that facilitates interaction between the present and the past. ➨ There are many types of sources, but for convenience, all these sources are divided into two broad categories, namely primary sources and secondary sources. ➨ The primary sources are sources that are not manipulated by anyone. These are more reliable and authentic sources. ➨ Primary sources are like chronicles, travellers accounts, coins, monuments, palaces, forts, royal farmans, official orders, court bulletins, historical letters, religious literature, inscriptions, and so on. ➨ The secondary sources of history are those sources which are based on primary sources. ➨ Archaeological sources are those ancient ruins, remains, and monuments that are recovered as a result of excavation and exploration of various sites. ➨ Radiocarbon dating is based on scientific inquiry. ➨ Inscriptions are a kind of archaeological source. These inscriptions are considered as the most valuable historical sources, because inscription gives us written information about a time period.

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12 | Chapter 1 When, Where, and How ➨ These inscriptions and their location not only provide valuable information but also help us to understand the sociocultural, religious, and political aspects of contemporary life. ➨ Bharat and India are two words used for our country. ➨ The word India is developed from Indus, which is called Sindhu in Sanskrit language. ➨ Iranian pronounced Sindhu as Hindos and Greeks pronounced Hindos as Indos. ➨ Bharat is a word used for a group of people who lived in the northwest of the subcontinent. Rig Veda’s earlier Sanskrit composition, which is dated about 3500 years ago, mentions about Bharata. ➨ Manuscript means a book written by hand on palm leaf. ➨ BC means before Christ, and AD means Anno Domini (in the year of lord). ➨ CE means Common Era, whereas BCE means Before Common Era.

Check Your Progress 1. What are the differences between primary and secondary sources of history? 2. What do you understand about archaeology? How is it important in History? 3. What is epigraphy? 4. What is palaeography? Why is it important in studying history?

5. Describe the concept of time and space in history. 6. What are inscriptions and literary sources? Elaborate with examples.

Objective Questions 1. Social science is: (a) Group of subject (b) Single subject (c) Integration of subjects (d) None of these 2. Social sciences constitute with: (a) History, political science, and geography (b) Political science, geography, and economics (c) History, political science, geography, and economics (d) History, geography, and economics

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3. History is a subject which gives us insight to understand about: (a) Our present (b) Our past (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these 4. Historical sources are categories in two categories: (a) First-hand source and third-hand source (b) Primary source and secondary source (c) Primary source, secondary source, and higher sources (d) None of these

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Unit I History | 13 5. Archaeological monuments are example of: (a) Secondary source (b) Normal source (c) Known source (d) Primary source 6. The study of coins known as: (a) Numismatics (b) Nursing (c) Neurology (d) Numerical 7. Reading and analysing the inscription known as: (a) Epigraphy (b) Epicgraphy (c) Topography (d) Epigography

(c) Religious accounts (d) Secular accounts 12. Megasthenes’ Indica, Ptolemy’s Geography, Al Beruni’s Kitab Al-Hind are examples of: (a) Religious accounts (b) Secular accounts (c) Travellers accounts (d) None of these 13. Iranians pronounce Sindhu as _______and Greeks pronounce as Indos. (a) Indos (b) Hindos (c) Indies (d) Sandos

8. The study of writings on inscriptions is known as: (a) Calligraphy (b) Palaeography (c) Daleography (d) Saleography

14. Sulaiman and Kirthar hill in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent are the first sites where 8000 years BC ago (a) new planned cities first began to grow. (b) wheat and barley first began to grow. (c) sheep and goats first began to be reared. (d) None of these

9. Exploration is part of: (a) Archaeology (b) Micrology (c) Sociology (d) Psychology

15. A book written on palm leaf is called: (a) Row script (b) Manuscript (c) Rescript (d) Script

10. Narmada River’s banks are the first sight where we found evidences related to: (a) Hotel and motel (b) Hunting and gathering (c) Wheat and barley (d) None of these

16. BC, AD, BCE, and CE are important in: (a) Study of history (b) Study of geography (c) Study of sociology (d) None of these

11. Ramayana and Mahabharata are examples of: (a) States chronicles (b) Travellers accounts

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Earliest Human Civilisation and Processes

CHAPTER

LEARNING OBjECTIVES • • • •

Understand the primitive lives of human beings and their associated activities Become aware about the shift from food gatherers to cultivators in human history Understand about the Harappan civilisation Explore the reasons of decline of Harappan civilisation

INTRODUCTION This chapter focuses on the earliest human activities, life of hunters and gatherers, first site of farming, and the civilisations. The purpose of this chapter is to understand the processes of human settlement in India. In this chapter, we will focus on first human civilisation in India. We will try to understand how people started farming and how they settled and built well-planned cities in the Indian subcontinent. Why hunting and gathering were important? Why did not they stay at one place? There are four major points for not staying at one place. Less availability of food was the first reason for their migration. All available resources come to an end when used continuously, which forced them to move to other places rich in all kinds of foods. Second, animals moved from place to place either in search of smaller prey or in search of grass and leaves. Third, trees bear fruits and plants are seasonal, and therefore, animals and human beings moved from place to place in search of these fruits and plants. Fourth, living things need water. Water is essential for animals, humans, and plants. Hence, in search of water, they moved to different places. It is interesting and also surprising to know that people around two million years ago lived as hunters and survived only on hunting and gathering fruits. However, archaeological evidences have proved this fact that people lived in Indian subcontinent and they fed themselves by hunting animals, catching fishes, gathering nuts, fruits, and seeds for their survival.

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Unit I History | 15

HOW DO WE KNOW ABOUT THESE PEOPLE It is an important question that how we come to know about them when we have no written evidences about their life. In such a situation, archaeology helps us to understand their life and practices. Archaeologists identified tools made of stones, wood, and bones used by those people for various purposes. It is important to know that tools made of stones served the best among others. Some of such tools are shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 Tools made of stones In Figure 2.1, there are different types of tools. These tools are different in shapes and sizes and are used for different purposes. Few tools were used to cut meat and bones. Some were used to chop woods, whereas others were used to kill animals, and the hunting tools were sharp. Wood was used to make tools, huts, and also used as firewood.

PLACES WHERE PEOPLE STARTED TO LIVE Which were the best places to live can be an important question to be asked. There were various criteria which people used to decide a place to live. One of the criteria was the availability of good kinds of stones to make their tools, which they used for hunting and other purposes. These places are called factories. Archaeologists found some places near river banks where they found many things such as blocks of stone, discarded tools because they were not in perfect shape, etc. These were the places where people lived relatively for a longer time. Archaeologist called these places with various terms such as habitation, factory, habitation-cum-factory, and so on. It is important to know that every term has different meanings and uses in different contexts. For example, when we use the term habitation, it is directly related to those places where people lived longer spells of time. When we use the term factory, it is related to those places where archaeologists found stone tools, discarded stones, and chips of stones, and when we use the term habitationcum-factory, it is related to those places that are not only used for habitation but also for tool making. Therefore, these places are called factories.

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16 | Chapter 2 Earliest Human Civilisation and Processes

STONE TOOLS AND THEIR MAKING PROCESS There were two kinds of techniques prevailed for stone tool making, and these are as follows: 1. Stone on stone: Here, the pebble from which the tool was to be made (also called the core) was held in one hand. Another stone, which was used as a hammer was held in the other hand. The second stone was used to strike off flakes from the first till the required shape was obtained. 2. Pressure flaking: Here, the core was placed on a firm surface. The hammer stone was used on a piece of bone or stone that was placed on the core to remove flakes that could be shaped into tools. (Source: NCERT textbook, Class 6, Our Past-I, Chapter 2, On the Trail of the Earliest People, pp. 16)

CHANGING ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN BEING The environment always keeps on changing, and it is not same today as it was 12,000 years ago. We know that the earth’s environment is getting warm day by day, which caused for the development of many grass lands. These emerged lands of grass provided space for better survival for animals such as deer, antelope, goat, sheep, cattle, and so on. These changes not only changed the dynamics of living organisms but also changed their lives too. These climatic changes also changed human life. Hunters started following animals, knowing their food habits and breeding seasons, because this helped human to identify their seasonal place to live. Gradually, human started herding and rearing animals. Another important point to highlight here is fishing. Humans started fishing in this era. They also observed that different kinds of grasses such as wheat, barley, rice, and so on grow naturally. They got insight to grow these grasses on their own.

ROCK PAINTING

Understanding the Past through Paintings What is rock painting? Do these have any roles to play about our past? The answer is certainly yes. Rock paintings are those paintings that are drafted by primitive (earliest) people of human civilisation. In the Indian subcontinent, most of the rock paintings are found in caves such as Bhimbetka, etc. Most of the caves are in Madhya Pradesh, southern Uttar Pradesh, and Maharashtra. Why we find these paintings in these caves? The primitive people did not have shelter like us. These people lived in natural habitation such as caves and trees. While living in the caves, they draw or sketch on the walls of the caves. In these sketches, they mostly drew animals and their rituals that were in practice at that time. Rock painting is important for us to reconstruct our past. These are the good sources to know how they lived and how they survived in that era. These paintings give us unbiased knowledge of that era. The material which they used in painting helped us to know about their knowledge of colours and knowledge of plants. Another question is who made these

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Unit I History | 17 paintings? It is tough to answer this question because their social structure was different than the present one. Another important thing to know is that there were various kinds of practices that prevailed; therefore, we cannot generalise about these practices that were happening in Indian subcontinent and should avoid any kind of judgement.

GATHERERS BECAME CULTIVATORS When talking about food, we have wide range of food grains, vegetables, and fruits. However, it is interesting to know that how food gatherers become cultivators. Today, it seems little unbelievable that our ancestors’ were food gatherers because we have enough access of good food and we are also familiar about cultivation. Even today cultivation is not an easy task. Then imagine how difficult it could be that time when there was no technology as we have today. Now, it is important to know about the importance of cultivation and how people changed from hunting to cultivating. To know more about cultivation, it is important to know about domestication. Domestication is one of the reasons why people became cultivators from gatherers, and cultivation motivates them to live permanently at one place, which is known as permanent settlement. Domestication is not only related to animals. Rather, it is also related to agricultural activities. It is difficult which started happening first whether animal breading or agriculture, but we cannot ignore this in the process of knowing human history. Domestication needs good knowledge about animals and plants. Only selected animals and plants are included in this. Plants prone to diseases are not included in this process. Plant selection also has some distinguishing features such as they selected only large-sized grain and strong stalks for better yield. Animal selection was also done on some distinguished features such as animals that are gentle for breeding was only selected. This process of domestication clearly differentiated between domesticated animals and plants, and wild animals. Another pertinent question is at what time the domestication process began? It is difficult to answer this question because it was a process throughout and not a product which occurred all of sudden. An archaeologist has estimated that it began about 12,000 years ago. As a result of this domestication, humans stared using different plants and animal products in their lives. Some of the earliest domesticated plants were wheat and barley, and some of the earliest domesticated animals were sheep and goats. Archaeologist and scientists are exploring various sites in South Asian subcontinent to know more about these animals, plants, farming, and farmers. Archaeologists have found evidences of early farmers and herders in the excavation from those sites. They found the remains of plants and animal bones along with burnt grain. Most of these except grains are identified by the scientists. There are many sites in the subcontinent that have many remains of grains and bones of different animals. Some of these sites and finding are given in Table 2.1.

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18 | Chapter 2 Earliest Human Civilisation and Processes Table 2.1 Archaeological evidences of early farmers and herders in the following sites Sites

Grain and bone

Mehrgarh (Pakistan)

Wheat, barley, sheep, goat, and cattle

Koldihwa (Uttar Pradesh, India)

Fragmentary animal bones and rice

Mahagara (Uttar Pradesh, India)

Cattle and rice

Gufkral (Kashmir, India)

Lentil and wheat

Burzahom (Kashmir, India)

Dog, cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, lentil, and wheat

Chirand (Bihar, India)

Barley, green gram, wheat, buffalo, and ox

Paiyampalli (Andhra Pradesh, India)

Black gram, millet, cattle, and sheep

Hallur (Karnataka, India)

Pig, sheep, Millet, and black gram

On the Way of Settled Life At present, we know about how we live. We also know about the types of houses across the world. Just imagine how people lived 6000 years ago? Which type of houses they built? Through some archaeological sites, let us try to understand how people lived in that era. Burzahom (present day Kashmir, India) is one of the sites where people built pit-houses. Pit-house is made by digging the ground, which has stairs downward to approach the house. These pit-houses may be used for shelters in cold weather. In Burzahom, archaeologists found cooking hearths inside and outside of the huts. These cooking hearths were used according to the weather. At many sites, various kinds of stone tools were also found. These tools were different from Palaeolithic tools, and archaeologists called them Neolithic. These are different because these tools were polished. Mortars and pestles were used for grinding grains. Even today, several thousand years after, our society uses mortars and pestles for grinding grains. In this era, Palaeolithic type tools are continued to be used. Tools made of bones are also used. Some examples of such tools are shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 New stone tools

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Unit I History | 19 In these sites, many kinds of earthen pots are also found. Some of them are decorated, and some of them are used for storing things. Pots were also used for cooking, and cooking changed the eating habits especially for grains such as rice, wheat, and lentils, and these became an important part of the diet. Cotton production was also important because it was used in weaving of clothes. But, when these changes happened: is an important question to be asked. Whether these changes happened at the same time or at different times? These changes did not happen all of a sudden at same time. Rather, these were gradual changes and not rapid. These were adopted slowly and gradually over a period of time. It is important to know that these activities were happening at different places on different rates and in different ways. At some places, both men and women were included in all activities, but in on other places, it was not the same. Similarly, at few places, people still indulge in hunting and gathering, whereas others indulge in cultivation.

CUSTOMS AND PRACTICES Customs and practices played a great role in human life. How can we know about the customs and practices of their times? Why are these customs important in human society? When we search answers to these questions, we relate their situation to the situation of present time farmers and herders. Archaeology does not clearly define these things. Scholars and social scientists have studied present-day farmers and herders. Their studies have shown that most of them lived in groups. These groups are basically ethnic groups and scholars named them as tribes. Deep analysis shows that these groups followed certain customs and practices. When scholars studied archaeological sites, they relate their findings from these sites with present time farmers and herders’ lives; they found some similarities in their customs and practices. Some of the customs and practices are continuously followed at present day also. Let us try to understand these things through Mehrgarh archaeological site. Mehrgarh archaeological site is located near the Bolan Pass. Mehrgarh is one of the main sites that provide evidences about the fact that man and women learnt to grow barley and wheat together. They were the first to rear goats and sheep in this area of the subcontinent. Mehrgarh is one of the earliest villages of the Indian subcontinent. When archaeologists started excavating this site, they found some of the important things that are found first time in Indian subcontinent such as many kinds of animal bones at the earliest levels of this site. Wild pig and deer bones are also found at the earliest level of this site. At later levels, more bones of sheep and goat were found. Another important finding at Mehrgarh is the remains of square or rectangular houses. These houses are different from other sites. These houses had four or more compartments. Maybe these compartments used for storage. Ritual is a most important component in social setup. Ritual may be considered as various kinds of customs and related activities. Archaeologists excavated these sites and found some graveyards. These graveyards are not simple graveyards; rather, they had some distinct features. Mehrgarh has several burials sites. In one graveyard, a dead person was buried with goats. This has some important meaning, may be it was a belief that goats serve as food in the next world. These buried things give us an idea about their rituals and practices.

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20 | Chapter 2 Earliest Human Civilisation and Processes

EARLIEST CITIES OF INDIAN SUBCONTINENT So far we have seen how human beings became farmers and herders from the life of hunting and gathering. We have also seen how these things changed human life and how human beings started a settled life. In this section, we will see how earliest village emerged. Through their houses and other excavated things, we will try to understand how they used different things and how they paid respect to their relatives. Let us try to understand about the earliest cities of the Indian subcontinent. We know well about Harappan civilisation, but how do we came to know about them? Let us know through Harappa how people discovered this ancient Indian city. When we see some old buildings what we think and what we understand about them? Every building tells us some stories about them. Some of these stories are related to their structure and some are related to other important events or incidents. About 150 years ago in Punjab, when railway lines were being laid down, railway engineers found ready-made, high-quality bricks in Harappa. Instead of buying new bricks, they used these good-quality Harappan bricks which they found near by the site. In this process, some of the buildings of the old city were completely destroyed. In such a situation, when things are destroyed, a significant question arises that how did we come to know about the ancient Harappa city? Almost eight years after this incident, archaeologists excavated this area and found that Harappan is one of the oldest cities in the Indian subcontinent. Harappa was the first discovered ancient city. However, later more sites were also discovered and many similarities were found between these sites. These sites have some similarities, but most important and similar thing between these cities is similar kind of buildings. These similarities provided logic to the archaeologists to give a name to this civilisation as Harappa. According to carbon dating examination, these cities were constructed about 4700 years ago.

What Makes These Cities Special When we analyse these cities, we found some similarities and some uniqueness in these cities. Which types of similarities and uniqueness are these? The city planning of various sites are common in Harappan civilisation. These cities are divided into two or more parts. In this division, west part was smaller but higher. Archaeologists used citadel term for this type of settlement. Generally, the east part of these cities was larger but lower, which is called a lower town. Walls of baked bricks were built around the city. These were high-quality bricks and therefore have lasted for thousands of years. When we see wall structure, bricks were laid in an interlocking pattern because interlocking pattern made walls strong. These cities have some special things such as special buildings were constructed on the citadel pattern, e.g., Mohenjo-daro. Let us see Mohenjo-daro’s picture and try to analyse it (Figure 2.3). Mohenjo-daro is well known for its bath tank which is built on its premises. Archaeologists called this tank ‘the great bath’. The great bath was built with bricks, coated with plaster, and made

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Unit I History | 21

Figure 2.3 The Great Bath, Mohenjo-daro

water-tight with a layer of natural tar that makes this building unique. There are steps at two sides to enter in this tank. There are rooms around the tank. The water source of the tank was probably a well, and the used water was drained out with the help of special drains. We do not know how and when people take bath in this tank: it may be usually or on any special occasions. It may be for all or only for special people. Most of the Harappan sites have some specific thing, buildings, etc., such as the fire altars. In Kalibangan and Lothal, archaeologists found some fire altars. These fire altars are well built, and they had a specific measurement. We do not know all the uses of fire altars, but their specific locations and other things provide the idea that they may be used for sacrifice performance. Other important buildings were storage houses. In Harappa, Lothal and Mohenjo-daro are some of the cities where storehouses were found.

Houses, Drains, and Streets of Harappan Cities The most important thing that makes Harappan cities specific was their planning. Their cities are well planned. Their streets and drainage systems make it different from the other contemporary cities. Houses are the most important buildings for us to understand how people lived in Harappa and what kind of techniques they used to build their houses and other buildings. In these cities, most of the houses were of either single floor or double floor. Rooms are built with courtyard. For water supply, some of the houses had well. Most of the houses had separate bathing area. These buildings were made of bricks. Bricks of Harappan civilisation are one of the most impressive things that attract everyone. These bricks were in specific shape and well backed. Many of the cities had the drainage system. The drainage system of these cities is a tremendous example of planning capabilities of the people of that era. Let us see Figure 2.4(a) and (b) and try to understand their planning capabilities. In Figure 2.4(a) of Mohenjo-daro, drains are laid out very carefully in straight lines. In some cities, the drains were fully covered. Each drain had a gentle slope that could help easy flow of water.

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22 | Chapter 2 Earliest Human Civilisation and Processes

(a)

(b)

Figure 2.4 (a) Drainage system of Mohenjo-daro (b) Bricks wall of Harappa

Houses were connected with this drainage system. The drainage system had different types of drains such as houses were connected with smaller drains that connect it to the street drains and street drains were connected with bigger drains that help to exit water from the main city. Another interesting thing is that drains had inspection holes. These holes were provided at intervals, which were helpful for cleaning these drains. Houses, streets, and drains were built at the same time.

Life in These Cities It is interesting to explore about the life the Harappans lived. Was life at Harappa similar to the life we live? We have discussed some of the Harappan cities and it is clear that these cities were busy and populated places. These cities did not emerge suddenly; these are systematically built cities. It means that they planned first and then started construction according to their planning. Other questions like how people lived in these cities and which type of ruling system they followed are also very significant questions. These cities were probably ruled by an individual or a group of people. In the excavation of these sites, we found some valuable objects which are rare in this area. Maybe they brought these items from different places; it means that they had some contact with their neighbouring areas. They used different types of ornaments made of gold and silver or beautiful beads for themselves. There are many such evidences that indicate the presence of scribes. Scribes are those people who know how to write, and they helped in preparing seals and other administrative works. There are evidences of existence of craftsperson in Harappan cities. These craftsperson maybe both men and women, and craftsperson used to make all kinds of things either in special workshops or in their houses. Archaeologists found many terracotta toys in these cities. These terracotta toys are made for children. Harappan seal and terracotta toys are shown in Figure 2.5.

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Unit I History | 23

(a)

(b)

Figure 2.5 (a) Harappan seal (b) Terracotta toys In the last paragraph, we did a brief discussion about the craftsperson. Figure 2.6 shows some of the objects they made.

Figure 2.6 Beads In Figure 2.6(a), four types of jewellery are shown. These are made of carnelian. Carnelian is a beautiful red stone. Look at this jewellery picture carefully, what is interesting in it? The stones are cut in shapes, polished, and a hole is bored in the centre of the stone, and then a string is passed through it. Now, look at Figure 2.6(b) of stone blades. These stone blades are beautifully cut and polished. Just think about them, what were the similarities in these things? These things are made by stones. Archaeologists also found many other things in these cities such as gold, silver, bronze, copper, stones, shells, and so on. Most of the things found in these sites are made of stones.

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24 | Chapter 2 Earliest Human Civilisation and Processes Bronze and copper were basically used in making weapons, tools, ornaments, and vessels. Beads, blades, and weights are the most common findings from these cities. Another beautiful creation of Harappan civilisation is Harappan seals. These seals are made of stone and beautifully furnished and polished. These seals are generally rectangular in shape. Most of the seals have an animal carved on them. Other things found in these cities are beautiful pots with black designs. Some pieces of clothes are also found in Mohenjo-daro. These pieces of clothes were attached with the copper objects and the lid of a silver vase. Mehrgarh is the first site where we found the evidence of cotton cultivation. This evidence is of around 7000 years old. Archaeologists also found spindle whorls. These spindle whorls were made by faience and terracotta. These tools were used to spin thread. All things we saw and discussed above are beautifully made, which need high-level perfection. There is no doubt that these things are made by specialists. Specialists is a person who is well trained to do a specific kind of work with perfection such as polishing beads, cutting stone, drilling in small pieces of stone, carving seals, and so on. These specialists were known as craftsperson.

Availability and Accessibility of Raw Materials What is raw material? Raw material is a necessary material to make any object. Raw material is a substance found naturally as ores of metals or wood or produced by herders or farmers. This raw material was processed and various kinds of goods were produced. For example, cotton is a raw material which is produced by farmers and then processed into clothes. Some raw materials were easily available locally but others materials such as tin, copper, gold, and some precious stones were brought from distant places. Table 2.2 gives the names of metals and the names of the places where these metals are brought from. Table 2.2 Metals found n ancient India Metal

Places

Copper

Rajasthan (India), Oman (West Asia)

Tin

Afghanistan and Iran

Gold

Karnataka (India)

Precious stones

Gujarat (India), Iran, and Afghanistan

Food for City People In Harappan civilisation, people who lived in cities were not doing cultivation; they were engaged in others kinds of activities. Now, an important question is that, if they were not doing cultivation, then how they got food or who provided them food. In this civilisation, people also lived at countryside other than cites, who reared animals and engaged in cultivation. These herders and farmers used to supply food to the city people.

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Unit I History | 25 Harappans were good at farming and grew many types of crops such as barley, wheat, peas, sesame, mustard, linseed, pulses, and so on. They used plough for cultivation. This tool was helpful in digging the surface of the earth for planting seeds. The ploughs were made by wood. It is interesting to know that the archaeologist did not find any actual ploughs but found toy model of ploughs, which helped us to interpret about the use of ploughs in cultivation. Cultivation mostly dependent on heavy rainfall, but if rainfall did not happen as per need, they used other kinds of irrigation, which means that the cultivation was not fully dependent on rainfall. One of the ways of irrigation could be storage of rain water and use it later in needful situation for cultivation. Finding cattle bones also indicates that animals were used for cultivation in Harappan civilisation. Most of the identified bones are of the reared cattle like buffalos, sheep, and goats. Harappans grew grains and herbs and also engaged in collecting food (fruits), fishing, and hunting.

Harappan Sites in Gujarat If we analyse Gujarat’s geographical conditions, most of the places in Gujarat are dry and cultivation largely depends on heavy rainfall. In starting of excavation of Harappan sites, most of the Harappan sites were found in Sindhu and Yamuna River plains. In 1967, Archaeological Survey of India discovered a new Harappan site in Khadirbet and Rann of Kutch. This new site was named as Dholavira. Discovery of Dholavira changed the view of archaeologists and social scientist about Harappan civilisation. Dholavira settlement is different from the other Harappan sites. Other Harappan sites were divided into two parts but Dholavira was divided into three parts. All the three parts of Dholavira were surrounded by massive stone walls. Entrance to the city is only through a gateway. Archaeologists found a large open area of settlement which was used for public ceremonies. Large letters of Harappan script was found and these letters carved on white stones. The archaeologists did not find wooden letters; latter, perhaps, they inlaid in wood but they are destroyed. A large number of Harappan scripts on small objects were also found from these sites, in which most of these written objects were seals. Another important Harappan site found in Gujarat is Lothal. Lothal is situated on a tributary of Sabarmati River in Gujarat. This site is close to the Gulf of Khambhat. This place is situated in an area where a large number of semi-precious stones are easily available. Lothal was an important site because it was a centre of making objects made of metals, shells, and stones. When archaeologists analysed their settlement, they found storehouses in the city and most of the seals were found in those storehouses. One building was found with a large number of pieces of stones, tools for bead making, half-made beads, and finished beads. Probably this building was a workshop for making beads. Another interesting finding in Lothal is the dockyard. Figure 2.7 shows the picture of this dockyard and try to understand its architecture. This huge tank (Figure 2.7) is found in Lothal. Archaeologists state that this huge tank was used by people of Lothal, where ships and boats came through the river channel and sea. This dockyard was probably used for loading and unloading of goods.

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26 | Chapter 2 Earliest Human Civilisation and Processes

Figure 2.7 Dockyard at Lothal

A MYSTERY OF THE END OF A CIVILISATION As per archaeologists, massive changes happened in Harappan civilisation around 3900 years ago, which they come to know by carbonic process. In many of Harappan cities, people stopped living and probably people slowly migrated to other areas. Evidences have shown the gradual decline of use of writings, seals, and weights. A very few raw materials were found in these sites, which was brought from distant places. This indicates something happened at that time. Later stages of Mohenjo-daro shows that the drainage system of the city broke down and garbage piled up on the streets of the city. But, how did these sudden changes happen? Well, we are not sure about what had happened in that era. Scholars have different views on this matter. Some scholars say that it happened because the river dried up, and another view is of deforestation, but none of these reasons were able to explain the end of all the cities. Flooding of a river or drying up affects only some of the areas but not all cities. Another view is that the rulers of these cities lost their control. We are not able to explain why these cities are abandoned, but one thing is clear. People from the site of west Punjab and Sindh (Pakistan) moved towards newer, smaller settlements of the eastern and southern areas.

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ Initially food was the reason for migration of people. ➨ It is interesting and also surprising to know that people around two million years ago lived as hunters and survived only on hunting and gathering fruits. ➨ Archaeologists help us to understand the past life and the practices of the people of that era. ➨ Archaeologists identified tools made of stones, wood, and bones used by those people for various purposes.

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Unit I History | 27 ➨ People decided their living places on the basis of availability of good quality stones to make tools. ➨ There were two kinds of techniques prevailed for stone tool making, and these are as follows: – Stone on stone: Here, the pebble from which the tool was to be made (also called the core) was held in one hand. Another stone, which was used as a hammer was held in the other hand. The second stone was used to strike off flakes from the first till the required shape was obtained. – Pressure flaking: Here, the core was placed on a firm surface. The hammer stone was used on a piece of bone or stone that was placed on the core to remove flakes that could be shaped into tools. ➨ Changing environment became one of the causes of animal rearing. ➨ Rock paintings are those paintings that are drafted by primitive (earliest) people of human civilisation. ➨ Domestication is one of the reasons why people became cultivators from gatherers, and cultivation motivates them to live permanently at one place, which is known as permanent settlement. ➨ Only selected animals were reared and only selected plants were grown by primitive human beings. ➨ At many sites, various kinds of stone tools were also found. These tools were different from Palaeolithic tools, and archaeologists called them Neolithic. These are different because these tools were polished. ➨ Mehrgarh archaeological site. Mehrgarh archaeological site is located near the Bolan Pass. Mehrgarh is one of the main sites that provide evidences about the fact that man and women learnt to grow barley and wheat together. ➨ Wild pig and deer bones are also found at the earliest level of Mehrgarh site. At later levels, more bones of sheep and goat were found. ➨ Harappa is one of the oldest cities in the Indian subcontinent. According to carbon dating examination, these cities were constructed about 4700 years ago. ➨ Harappan cities are divided into two or more parts. In this division, west part was smaller but higher. Archaeologists used citadel term for this type of settlement. Generally, the east part of these cities was larger but lower, which is called a lower town. ➨ Mohenjo-daro is well known for its bath tank which is built on its premises. ➨ The most important thing that makes Harappan cities specific was their planning. Their cities are well planned. Their streets and drainage systems make it different from the other contemporary cities. ➨ In these cities, most of the houses were of either single floor or double floor. Rooms are built with courtyard. ➨ Some pieces of clothes are also found in Mohenjo-daro. These pieces of clothes were attached with the copper objects and the lid of a silver vase.

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28 | Chapter 2 Earliest Human Civilisation and Processes ➨ As per archaeologists, massive changes happened in Harappan civilisation around 3900 years ago, which they come to know by carbonic process. ➨ We are not sure about what had happened in that era which became a cause of decline of Harappan civilisation. Some scholars say that it happened because the river dried up, and another view is of deforestation, but none of these reasons were able to explain the end of all the cities. Flooding of a river or drying up affects only some of the areas but not all cities.

Check Your Progress 1. Write a short note on hunting and gathering. 2. Explain how the early man became farmers and headers. 3. Explain the role of agriculture in human history. 4. Write a short note on domestication. 5. Try to explain the role of tools in human evolution. Which type of tools was used by

human beings in Neolithic and Palaeolithic eras? 6. Discuss about houses, streets, and drainage systems of Harappa? 7. Write short notes the following: (a) Great bath (b) Mehrgarh (c) Harappan civilisation (d) Harappan crafts person

Objective Questions 1. Hunting and gathering is related to: (a) Earliest people (b) Present time (c) Harappans (d) None of these

3. Bhimbetka caves are situated in: (a) Arunachal Pradesh (b) Andhra Pradesh (c) Madhya Pradesh (d) Himachal Pradesh

2. Two techniques used in making of tools were (a) pressure flaking technique and bones flaking technique. (b) stone on stone technique and pressure flaking technique. (c) shell flaking technique and stone on bone technique. (d) bone on wood technique and bone pressure flaking technique.

4. Archaeologists found some fire altars evidence in: (a) Harappa and Mohenjo-daro (b) Lothal and Dholavira (c) Burzahom and Rakhigarhi (d) Kalibangan and Lothal

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5. The evidences of cotton cultivation were found in subcontinent, which are________ years old.

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Unit I History | 29 (a) (b) (c) (d)

5000 6000 7000 8000

6. Lothal is situated on a tributary of which river of Gujarat? (a) Narmada (b) Daman Ganga (c) Tapti (d) Sabarmati 7. Dholavira settlement is different from the other Harappan sites because (a) it is divided into two parts. (b) it is divided into three parts. (c) it is divided into four parts. (d) it is divided into five parts. 8. Kurnool archaeological site is famous for: (a) Stone tools (b) Bone tools (c) Wood tools (d) Fire ashes 9. Square or rectangular houses are found in: (a) Mohenjo-daro (b) Kalibangan (c) Harappa (d) Rakhigarhi 10. Harappa was divided into two or more parts. In this division, west part is similar but higher. Which term Archaeologists used for this type of settlement?

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Aitadel Bitadel Citadel Ditadel

11. French cave painting famous for: (a) Tools (b) Paintings (c) Bones (d) Fire 12. Terracotta toys were made for: (a) Ceremonials (b) Business (c) Weapon (d) Children 13. According to carbon 14 dating, Harappan civilisation is ______ year old. (a) 3800 (b) 3900 (c) 4000 (d) 4100 14. Dockyard found in: (a) Bet Dwarka (b) Dholavira (c) Desalpur (d) Lothal 15. Which Harappan site was surrounded by massive stone walls? (a) Harappa (b) Mohenjo-daro (c) Kalibangan (d) Dholavira

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CHAPTER

State Formation and Social Change

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • • • • •

Explore the journey that led to the formation of states and rise of the states Magadha and Vajji Understand the later Vedic phase with reference to transition of state and social order Know the diffusion of iron technology and agriculture Recognise the relationship between technological development and social change Be familiar with Buddhism and Jainism Explore the diffusion of iron technology and political organisation

INTRODUCTION The chapter leaps into the period of 6th century BCE that is marked by significant political, social, economic, and religious developments. Let us explore all those developments that make this period so distinct from the rest.

POST-VEDIC PERIOD

Transition to State and Social Orders (1000 BCE–500 BCE) The history of later Vedic period is based mainly on the Vedic texts compiled after the age of Rig Veda. The sources for later Vedic phase includes three Vedas (Yajur, Atharva, and Sama), Brahmanas, Upanishads, Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites, and iron implements.

Question: What are PGW sites? Answer: Inhabited sites in Upper Gangetic basin of later Vedic period where people used earthen bowls and dishes made of PGW pottery.

The sources highlight the Aryan’s expansion in the later Vedic phase from Punjab to present-day Western Uttar Pradesh covered by Ganga–Yamuna doab. The Bharat and Purus were the two important tribes who combined to form the Kuru people.

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Unit I History | 31

Question: Do you know the land of Kurus occupying Delhi and upper reaches of Ganga– Yamuna Doab? Answer: It is Kurukshetra. Gradually, Kurus coalesced with the Panchalas occupying central part of the doab (modern districts of Bareilly, Badaun, and Farrukhabad). The authority of Kuru–Panchala had set up their capital at Hastinapur situated in Meerut district. The history of Kuru tribes is important for the Battle of Bharata (950 BCE), which is the principal theme of the great epic called Mahabharata resulted in the destruction of whole Kuru clan virtually. In a famous passage of the Satapatha Brahmana, we are told that Agni, the fire God, moved eastward, burning the earth until he reached the river Sadanira (currently, it is called Gandak). There he stopped. He asked chieftain Videha Mathava to carry him over the river. Thus, the land of Videha was Aryanised it took its name from its coloniser. The legend is mentioned in a famous passage of Satapatha Brahmana. This event caused the Vedic people of later Vedic period to move towards Kosala in Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Videha in North Bihar; furthermore, land clearance by burning lead to the migrations of warriors and agriculturists that resulted in the establishments of new settlements. Do you think that some metal implements would have been used for cutting and burning the trees in the forests? A reference to a presence of a dark or black metal axe has been made in the later Vedic texts such as Shyama or Krishna Ayas and it has also been found at excavated sites such as Atranjikhera and Jakhera in Western Uttar Pradesh and its adjoining areas. Question: What is the contemporary name of Shyama Ayas? Answer: Iron.

Diffusion of Iron Technology and Agriculture Agriculture was the chief means of subsistence of later Vedic people; however, it was primitive because of the dominant use of wooden ploughshare since upper Gangetic plains had light soil. On the contrary, the eastward thrust of Vedic people exposed the densely forested, moist soil of mid-Gangetic plains receiving 114–140 cm rainfall, which could not be colonised without the aid of iron implements. References to four great forests (Maha-Aranyas) and derivation of names of some modern places such as Champaran from Champaranya, Arrah from ancient Aranya suggest that middle Gangetic basin was thickly forested. Archaeological evidences of iron ploughshare are found in Ropar, Jakhera, and Kaushambi; iron slag and iron subjects (axes, chisel, and sickles) are found at Rajghat (Banaras). However, they are found meagre in quantity because of the corrosive nature of soil in mid-Gangetic plains that complement huge textual reference to agricultural tools made of iron. The mention of Kuddala (hoe/spade) and Kuddalika (one who earns his livelihood with the help of his tool) in a Brahmanical text advances the use of iron implements further in agriculture.

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32 | Chapter 3 State Formation and Social Change All these information indicate the diffusion of iron technology; most importantly, iron tools and implements were used not only in wars during post-Vedic period but also for other purposes such as for clearing forests and bringing more and more land under plough. Since iron ploughshares made deep ploughing possible with consequent proliferation of territorial settlements strengthened by the fact that more than 550 Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) sites (distinctive artefact category of the period from 6th century up to the 1st century BCE) have been either excavated or explored in the upper and middle Ganga plains. The new agrarian economy based on the iron ploughshare required the use of bullocks; however, Vedic practice of killing cattle in sacrifices and non-Vedic tribal practice of killing cattle for food decimated the cattle population. Therefore, to stabilise and flourish new agricultural economy, killing was stopped.

Relationship between Technological Development and Social Change The use of effective iron implements was accompanied by an improved knowledge of cultivation and a variety of crops. This enabled peasants to produce large surpluses that helped the growth of towns. The existence of no less than 10 urban centres in the middle ganga basin during 600 BCE–300 BCE is proved by both archaeology and contemporary literature; for example, Champa, Rajgriha, Saketa, and Banaras. Trade has been both a cause and effect of increasing urbanisation as witnessed in the movement of Alexander’s army from mainland Greece to India; this movement had opened a number of trade routes and revealed the possibilities of mercantile relations between north west India and west Asia. For example, along Ganga from Rajgriha to Kaushambi connecting Ujjain (Madhya Pradesh) with broach, the chief port for sea trade with west; route from Kaushambi leading across Punjab to Taxila, an outlet for India’s overland trade with north west. The Jatakas, the Buddhist birth stories, make references to caravans of 500–1000 carts going from one place to another. Trade received a major boost with the use of metal coins in the post-Vedic period. These coins were issued by merchants and they were covered with punch marks; thus, these coins were termed as ‘punch-marked’ coins. Many hoards of such coins have been found in the middle Ganga plains indicating a reasonably high level of monetisation of region. The growth of towns, expansion of trade and rise of money economy had led to the development of diverse arts and crafts other than pre-existing service occupations (weaver, painter, barber, and cook), such as vehicle maker, needle maker, carpenter, metalsmith, goldsmith, potter, ivory maker, garland maker, and silk manufacturer implying specialisation in the field of commodity production. Artisans and craftsmen had soon organised themselves into guilds such as smiths, painters, woodworkers, and leatherworkers, who inhabited a particular section of town. This led to the localisation of crafts and industries and also their hereditary transmission from father to son. New groups rose to prominence in society because of guilds such as jettaka (head of guild) and setthis (financier or banker).

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Unit I History | 33 In countryside, gahapatis (peasant proprietors) came to forefront by virtue of their wealth. In earlier period, they were the lords of the house; however, now, they are the heads of large patriarchal household of any caste. Since wealth was measured in terms of lands and not cattle, the gahapatis became affluent. The rise of new wealthy class in villages and towns caused economic inequalities that further undermined the tribal ideas of kinship and equality; however, it strengthened four Varna divisions of the society during the post-Vedic period. The cultural gap between aboriginal tribes, autochthons (hunters and fowlers) at low level of material culture and Varna society led to the growth of untouchability. For example, autochthonous people such as chandalas and pukkasas were objects of spite and abhorrence.

Religion Vedic ritualism and animals’ sacrifices conflicted the aspiration of rising social group and misfit the basic changes in material lives of the people. Therefore, in 6th century BCE at Gangetic valley, there emerged new philosophical ideas such as Charvaka school of philosophy, Vaisheshika school, and Samkhya system; further, religious ideas of Jainism and Buddhism became the most prevalent. The doctrine of ahimsa helped in increasing development in the plough cultivation, which was mainly dependent on animal husbandry against animal sacrifice in the Vedic period; however, undue emphasis on non-violence stood in the way of its propagation among agriculturalists whose profession involved killing insects and pests along artisans and craftsman whose occupation endangered the life of other creatures. Jainism restricts on owning private property as it creates social inequalities and this restriction was interpreted as a ban only on the possession of land property. Therefore, the followers of Jainism had specialised in the traffic of manufactured goods and confined themselves to financial transactions. Therefore, Jains became increasingly associated with the spread of urban culture and maritime trade, especially during the recent development of 6th century. Trade and use of money gave rise to money lending and usury; however, Dharmasutras (Brahmanical law books) decried the practice of lending money at an interest rate and the Vaishyas who lent money because of growing trade and commerce were held in low esteem. Further, they looked for better social status offered by the new religious ideas of Jainism and Buddhism.

Jainism Life of Vardhamana Mahavira (539 BC–467 BC) Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara of the Jain tradition. He was born at Kundagrama near Vaishali to Kshatriya parents Siddhartha and Trishala. He married Yashoda and gave birth to a daughter. At the age of 30, he became an ascetic and wandered for 12 years. In the 13th year of his penance, he attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala Jnana. Thereafter, he was

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34 | Chapter 3 State Formation and Social Change called Mahavira and Jina (conqueror of world). His followers were called Jains and his religion was Jainism. He preached his doctrines for 30 years and died at the age of 72 at Pava near Rajagriha. The three principles of Jainism, also known as Triratnas (three gems), are right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct. Mahavira organised the Sangha to spread his teachings. He admitted both men and women in the Sangha, which consisted of both monks and lay followers. The first Jain Council was convened at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu, the leader of the Digambaras, in the beginning of the 3rd century BC. The second Jain Council was held at Vallabhi in 5th century AD. The final compilation of Jain literature called twelve Angas was completed in this council.

Buddhism Life of Gautama Buddha (567 BC–487 BC) Gautama or Siddhartha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in 567 BC in Lumbini Garden near Kapilavastu. His father was Suddhodana of the Shakya clan and mother Maya devi. He left home at the age of 29 in search of truth. He wandered for 7 years and met several teachers but could not get enlightenment. At last, he sat under a Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya and did intense penance, after which he got enlightenment (Nirvana) at the age of 35. Since then he was known as the Buddha or ‘the Enlightened One’. He delivered his first sermon at Sarnath near Banaras, and for the next 45 years, he led the life of a preacher. He died at the age of 80 at Kushinagar. The four noble truths of Buddha are as follows: 1. The world is full of sufferings. 2. The cause of suffering is desire. 3. If we get rid of desires, suffering can be removed. 4. This can be done by following the Eightfold Path. The Eightfold Path consists of right view, right resolve, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. The first Buddhist council was held at Rajagriha under the chairmanship of Mahakasyapa immediately after the death of Buddha. Its purpose was to maintain the purity of the teachings of the Buddha. The second Buddhist council was convened at Vaishali around 383 BC. The third Buddhist council was held at Pataliputra under the patronage of Asoka. The final version of Tripitakas was completed in this council. The fourth Buddhist council was convened in Kashmir by Kanishka under the chairmanship of Vasumitra. The new school of Buddhism called Mahayana Buddhism came into existence during this council. The Buddhist texts were collected and compiled some 500 years after the death of Buddha. They are known as the Tripitakas, namely the Sutta, the Vinaya, and the Abhidhamma Pitakas. They are written in the Pali language.

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Unit I History | 35

DIFFUSION OF IRON TECHNOLOGY AND POLITICAL ORGANISATION Like religion, contemporary political developments were also deeply rooted in changing material condition towards the end of later Vedic phase. The diffusion of iron technology in agriculture enabled peasants to produce more food grains than they required for consumption. This extra produce was being collected to meet the growing needs of military and administration. Newly introduced land taxes such as bhaga and kara became state’s source of income along obligatory Bali (earlier voluntary tribute by people to the chief of tribe). Along peasants, new artisans and traders also became tax-paying classes. According to law books, the artisans had to work one day a month for a king and traders had to pay taxes on sales to toll officers known as shaulkike or shulkadhyaksha. The taxation system grew consequently developing the state machinery that became complex as the time progressed. For instance, tribal militia was now replaced by a standing army, the most effective prop of state organisation.

RISE OF STATES In 6th century BCE, the rise of large states with towns as their base of operations strengthened the territorial idea. A passage from panini makes clear that people owed allegiance to the Janapada (territory to which they belonged) rather than their Jana (tribe). Therefore, the important feature of political life was the emergence of several territorial states in different parts of the country. According to the Buddhist literature Anguttara Nikaya, 16 large states (Mahajanapadas), each comprising several agricultural settlements (Janapadas), existed in the 6th century BCE in the Indian subcontinent. Some of them had monarchical forms of government, while some others were republics. While there was a concentration of monarchies on the Ganga plain, the republics were scattered in the foothills of the Himalayas and in northwestern India. Some of the republics consisted of only one tribe, such as Sakyas, Licchavis, and Mallas. In the republics, the power of decision in all matters of the state vested with the public assembly, which was composed of the tribal representatives or heads of families. All decisions were made by a majority vote. Undoubtedly, this number of large territorial states is not ordinary. However, did all of these 16 Mahajanapadas play the same role in contemporary politics? The answer is NO. In the 6th century BCE, only 4 states remained important. Can you guess their names? It is Kashi, Kosala, Magadha, and Vajjian confederacy. However, what could have made these states so exclusive is significant to explore. Kashi was at first the most powerful of them and played important role in subversion of Videhan monarchy. Its capital was Varanasi. The economic importance of Kashi lay in the fact of being the leading centre of textile manufacture during the Buddha period. For example, Kashaya (orange brown) robes of Buddhist monks are said to have been manufactured here. Ayodhya was the capital of Kosala. King Prasenajit was its famous ruler. He was highly educated. His position was further strengthened by the matrimonial alliance with Magadha. His sister

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36 | Chapter 3 State Formation and Social Change was married to Bimbisara and Kasi was given to her as dowry. Subsequently, there was a dispute with Ajatasatru. After the end of the conflict, Prasenajit married the daughter of Bimbisara. After the death of this powerful king, Kosala became part of the Magadha. The Vajji state is said to be a confederation of 8 clans (atthakulas) such as Vedehans and lichchhavis, which was non-monarchical in nature. Of all the kingdoms of north India, Magadha emerged powerful and prosperous. It became the nerve Centre of political activity in north India. Magadha was endowed by nature with certain geographical and strategic advantages. These made her to rise to imperial greatness. Her strategic position between the upper and lower part of the Gangetic valley was a great advantage. It had fertile soil. The iron ores in the hills near Rajgir and copper and iron deposits near Gaya added to its natural assets. Her location at the centre of the highways of trade of those days contributed to her wealth. Rajagriha was the capital of Magadha. During the reign of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, the prosperity of Magadha reached its zenith. These four states fought for political hegemony for nearly 100 years; however, eventually Magadha emerged victorious and became Centre of political activity in north India.

Magadha Magadha became the most important Mahajanapada in about 200 years. Many rivers such as the Ganga and Son flowed through Magadha. This was important for (a) transport, (b) water supplies, and (c) making the land fertile. Parts of Magadha were forested. Elephants, which lived in the forest, could be captured and trained for the army. Forests also provided wood for building houses, carts, and chariots. Besides, there were iron ore mines in the region that could be tapped to make strong tools and weapons. Magadha had two very powerful rulers, Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, who used all the possible means to conquer other janapadas. Mahapadma Nanda was another important ruler. He extended his control up to the north-west part of the subcontinent. Rajagriha (now, it is called Rajgir) in Bihar was the capital of Magadha for several years. Later, the capital was shifted to Pataliputra (now, it is called Patna). More than 2300 years ago, a ruler named Alexander, who lived in Macedonia in Europe, wanted to become a world conqueror. Of course, he did not conquer the world, but did conquer parts of Egypt and West Asia, and came to the Indian subcontinent, reaching up to the banks of the Beas. When he wanted to march further eastwards, his soldiers refused. They were scared, as they had heard that the rulers of India had vast armies of foot soldiers, chariots, and elephants.

Vajji While Magadha became a powerful kingdom; Vajji, with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar), was under a different form of government known as Gana or sangha. In a Gana or a sangha there were not one, but many rulers. Sometimes, even when thousands of men ruled together, each one was known as a raja. These rajas performed rituals together. They also met in assemblies and decided

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Unit I History | 37 what had to be done or how a situation can be handled through their discussions and debates. For example, if they were attacked by an enemy, they discuss on what should be done to meet the threat. However, women, dasas, and kammakaras could not participate in these assemblies. Both the Buddha and Mahavira belonged to Ganas or Sanghas. Some of the most vivid descriptions of life in the Sanghas can be found in Buddhist books.

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ The history of later Vedic period is based mainly on the Vedic texts compiled after the age of Rig Veda. ➨ Inhabited sites in Upper Gangetic basin of later Vedic period where people used earthen bowls and dishes made of PWG pottery. ➨ The sources highlight Aryan’s expansion in later Vedic phase from Punjab to present-day Western Uttar Pradesh covered by Ganga–Yamuna doab. ➨ The land of Kurus occupying Delhi and upper reaches of Ganga–Yamuna Doab is known as Kurukshetra. ➨ Agriculture was the chief means of subsistence of later Vedic people but primitive because of dominant use of wooden ploughshare since upper Gangetic plains had light soil. ➨ The use of effective iron implements was accompanied by an improved knowledge of cultivation and of a variety of crops. This knowledge enabled peasants to produce greater surpluses that helped the growth of towns. ➨ Trade has been both a cause and effect of increasing urbanisation as witnessed in movement of Alexander’s army from mainland Greece to India; this movement had opened a number of trade routes and revealed the possibilities of mercantile relations between northwest India and west Asia. ➨ Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara of the Jain tradition. He was born at Kundagrama near Vaishali to Kshatriya parents Siddhartha and Trishala. ➨ Gautama or Siddhartha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in 567 BC in Lumbini Garden near Kapilavastu. His father was Suddhodana of the Sakya clan and mother Maya Devi. ➨ The Four Noble Truths of Buddha are as follows: – The world is full of suffering. – The cause of suffering is desire. – If we get rid of desires, suffering can be removed. – This can be done by following the Eightfold Path. ➨ During the reign of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, the prosperity of Magadha reached its zenith. ➨ Magadha became the most important Mahajanapada in about 200 years. Many rivers such as the Ganga and the Son flowed through Magadha. This was important for transport, water supplies, and making the land fertile. ➨ While Magadha became a powerful kingdom, Vajji, with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar), was under a different form of government, known as Gana or Sangha.

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38 | Chapter 3 State Formation and Social Change

Check Your Progress 1. Discuss the transition to state and social order during later Vedic phase. 2. How technology and agriculture got diffused in past? Elaborate with suitable example from the past. 3. How technological development has contributed in social change? Elaborate with relevant examples.

4. Discuss the rise of state during 16 BCE. 5. Write short notes on the following: (a) Jainism (b) Buddhism

Objective Questions 1. Which one of the following is not a source of Vedic period? (a) Yajur Veda (b) Atharva Veda (c) Upanishads (d) Mahabharata

5. What has been both a cause and effect of increasing urbanisation? (a) Agriculture (b) Trade (c) Both of these (d) None of these

2. PGW stands for (a) Painted Grey Ware (b) Powerful Grid Wire (c) Preserved Group Wealth (d) None of these

6. The Charvak school of philosophy emerged: (a) Around 6th century (b) Around 4th century (c) Around 7th century (d) None of these

3. Aryan’s expansion in later Vedic phase found from: (a) Punjab to present-day Western Uttar Pradesh covered by Ganga–Yamuna doab (b) Punjab to Narmada River in south (c) Punjab to the Bay of Bengal (d) All of these

7. The life of Vardhamana Mahavira is associ-

4. The Bharata and Purus were the two important tribes who combined to form the: (a) Kuru people (b) Puran people (c) Vedic people (d) All of these

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ated with: (a) 539 BC–467 BC (b) 430 BC–567 BC (c) 639 BC–767 BC (d) None of these

8. Vardhamana Mahavira was the _______ tirthankara of the Jain tradition. (a) 25th (b) 24th (c) 23rd (d) 26th

9. Which one of the following is not the part of three principles of Jainism?

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Unit I History | 39 (a) (b) (c) (d)

Right faith Right knowledge Right conduct Right moral

10. The life of Gautama Buddha is associated with: (a) 567 BC–487 BC (b) 467 BC–587 BC (c) 650 BC–730 BC (d) None of these 11. Which one of the following is not one of the four noble truths of Buddha? (a) The world is full of suffering (b) The cause of suffering is desire (c) If we get rid of desires, sufferings cannot be removed (d) This can be done by following the Eightfold Path 12. According to the Buddhist literature, there are _______ Mahajanpada.

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

16 14 6 20

13. Ayodhya was the capital of: (a) Kosala (b) Pataliputra (c) Magadha (d) None of these 14. The present name of Pataliputra is: (a) Patna (b) Bengal (c) Lucknow (d) None of these 15. The capital of Vajji kingdom was: (a) Vaishali (b) Kurukshetra (c) Magadha (d) None of these

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CHAPTER

Empires, Social, and Cultural Exchange

LEARNING ObjECTIVES • • • • •

Understand the emergence of Magadha as empire Explore the Mauryan Empire with reference to its kings and administration Know the Ashoka Empire and Ashoka’s dhamma Be aware of the Gupta empire and economic prosperity in this empire Know the social and cultural changes took place from 600 BCE to 600 CE

INTRODUCTION The time period of 600 BC–600 AD, almost 1000 years, was a crucial era in the Indian history. In this time period, many changes happened that gave shape to every aspect of the Indian society. These changes not only happened in political aspect but also in social and religious aspects. In these 1000 years, many changes happened in the subcontinent. In 600 BC, we saw the emergence of Mahajanapadas. While most of the Mahajanapadas were ruled by kings/rajas, some of the Mahajanapadas ruled in a different way. To understand the emergence of empires in Indian subcontinent, let us analyse the emergence of Magadha.

EMERGENCE OF MAGADHA AS EMPIRE We all know that there are 16 Mahajanapada emerged in the 6th century BC. During the time period of the 6th century to the 4th century BC, Magadha emerged as a powerful state in the Indian subcontinent. Historians defined the emergence of Magadha for different reasons; for example, the region was productive, easy accessibility of iron ores, and use of elephants in the army. Ganga and his tributaries were helpful in cheap communication and transportation. However, knowing about Magadha is an interesting exploration. The emergence of Magadha is contemporary to the emergence of Buddhism and Jainism. The contemporary Buddhist and Jain texts provide us useful information about Magadha’s ruling kings such as Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, and Mahapadma Nanda. These rulers had played important role in the emergence of Magadha.

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Unit I History | 41 Magadha was located in between the Ganga and their tributaries. Some part of the present-day Bihar is also included in Magadha. Rajagriha/Rajgir was the capital of Magadha. Rajagriha/Rajgir means the house of the king. Rajagriha was located in hills and in the 4th century BCE. The capital shifted from Rajagriha to Pataliputra, which is known as Patna in the present time. The Magadha Empire was ruled by many dynasties but some of them played the most significant role in the emergence of Magadha. Let us try to understand their contribution.

Haryanka Around 542 BCE, Magadha came under the leadership of Bimbisara (542 BCE–493 BCE). Bimbisara belonged to the Haryanka dynasty. He was the first king who strengthened his position by a marriage alliance with their neighbouring states; that is, he first married the daughter of the king of Kosala and sister of Prasenajit; second, he married lichchhavi Princess Chellana from Vaishali, and third, he married the daughter of the chief of Madra clan, Punjab. These marriages to different princely families gave enormous diplomatic support to Magadha. These alliances helped Magadha to expand northward and westward. Bimbisara was killed by his son Ajatasatru and he became the king of Magadha. Ajatasatru ruled around 492 BCE to 444 BC for almost 50 years. Ajatasatru is known for his aggressive policies of expansion such as he conquered the republic of Vaishali and fought a war against Licchavi-ruled Vajji. Ajatasatru was contemporary of Mahavir and Buddha. Ajatasatru was succeeded by Udayin. Udayin region is important because he transferred his capital from Rajgir to Pataliputra. Later, Pataliputra became the centre of the Magadha kingdom. After Udayin, the Haryanka dynasty rule was over and it was succeeded by Shishunaga. The Shishunagas dynasty ruled almost 100 years. The greatest achievement of this dynasty was the destruction of the power of Avanti and his capital Ujjain. This dynasty was ended by Avanti. Shishunagas dynasty was succeeded by the Nandas. The dynasty of Nandas proved themselves as the strongest dynasty of Magadha. Nandas ruled the larger part of Indian subcontinent. Under the reign of Mahapadma Nanda, they conquered the Kalinga. Mahapadma Nanda claimed Ekarat, which means the sole sovereign. The Nandas were the first non-Kshatriya rulers in the Indian history. The last Nanda ruler was defeated by Chandragupta Maurya who found the Mauryan Empire.

MAURYAN EMPIRE: THE EARLIEST EMPIRE OF INDIAN HISTORY The Mauryan Empire was found by Chandragupta Maurya in 321 BCE. The Mauryan Empire was based on the growth of Magadha. The expansion to Mauryan Empire under Chandragupta Maurya was extended in northwest as Afghanistan and Baluchistan and in the regime of his grandson Ashoka, who conquered Kalinga (costal area of Orissa, India).

How We Know About Mauryan Empire In 1830, James Prinsep, an officer of the East India Company was deciphered the earliest inscriptions, which used two scripts Brahmi and Kharosthi on coins. He found that most of these

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42 | Chapter 4 Empires, Social, and Cultural Exchange inscriptions and coins mentioned a king that they referred as ‘Piyadassi’. Piyadassi means ‘pleasant to behold.’ Some of inscriptions were referred to the king Ashoka. According to the contemporary Buddhist writings, Ashoka was referred as the most famous king. This helped Indian and European scholars to investigate the early Indian political history in a new direction. Scholars used these inscriptions and texts to reconstruct the lineage of major dynasties ruled in Indian subcontinent. The historians used a variety of sources such as archaeological finds, contemporary Buddhist, Jain, and Puranic text, writings of Megasthenes, which is known as Indica, and Kautilya or Chanakya’s Arthashastra to reconstruct the history of the Mauryan Empire. Mauryan king Ashoka’s inscription on rocks and pillars are the most valuable sources to understand the regime of king Ashoka. Probably, Ashoka was the king in the Indian history who inscribed his messages for public on the polished pillars as well as on the surfaces of the natural rocks.

Mauryan Kings King Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan Empire. He ruled around 324 BCE– 300 BCE. The early life and ancestry of Chandragupta was not much known. There are some contradictions about the early life and ancestry of Chandragupta; for example, Buddhist texts, Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa, described Chandragupta as Kshatriya of Mauriya’s branch of Sakyas who lived in Pipphalivana (eastern Utter Pradesh). In Vishakhadatta’s play Mudrarakshasa, he used terms Vrishala and Kulhina for Chandragupta. These terms mean that a person is of humble origin. A Greek writer Justin also says same thing about Chandragupta. Therefore, there is no clarity about early life of the Mauryan king Chandragupta. There are different stories about the Chandragupta’s conquests and empire building process. However, the reality is that the details of Chandragupta’ conquests and empire building process are not available to us to describe them. According to the Greek and Jain sources, Chandragupta took advantage of the death of Alexander’s sudden death in 323 BCE in Babylon. The sudden death of Alexander became a cause of disturbance in northwestern India. Chandragupta with the help Kautilya raised a large army and launched campaigns against the Greek Kshatrapas. Sandrocottus of the Greek writers identified as Chandragupta Maurya. Greek Kshatrapa Seleucus sent his ambassador to the court of the Chandragupta Maurya. His name was Megasthenes who had written Indica, which is not available. Chandragupta Maurya ruled from 324 BCE to 300 BCE. Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by Bindusara. There is little knowledge about this Mauryan king among historians. Some of the texts mentioned about him; for example, Tibetan historian Taranath and Jain scholar Hemachandra says that Chanakya was continued as a minister of Bindusara. In Divyavadana, it was mentioned that Bindusara appointed his eldest son Sumana/ Susima as his representative at Taxila and Ashoka at Ujjain. This text also mentions about one incident where a revolt broke out in Taxila and Susima was not able to control it; then, Ashoka was sent to restore peace. The conquest of south India under Mauryas was not cleared. Some scholars gave credit to Bindusara but most of the scholars believed that it was done by Chandragupta Maurya. Bindusara continued his father’s policy of friendly relationship with Hellenic Kshatrapas.

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Unit I History | 43 Pliny mentioned that Dionysius was appointed as an ambassador in Bindusara court. Dionysius was the ambassador of the Greek Kshatrapa Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt. Bindusara died in 273 BCE and he ruled from 300 BCE to 273 BCE. There was mystery about his successor. In 273 BCE, after the death of Bindusara, Ashoka became the king of Mauryan Empire. We do not know about the earliest life of king Ashoka but there are some sources claiming that he killed his 99 brothers for the kingship. However, there is some contradiction; this is because in his edicts, he shows his affection about his brothers, sisters, and other relatives. Probably, Ashoka was the

Mansehra Shahbazgarhi

Lampaka

Taxila

Kandahar

Kalsi Topra Bahapur (Delhi)

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Meerut

Lauriya Araraj Sarnath Pataliputra Gujarra Kaushambi

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Rupnath

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Sannathi Arabian Sea

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Yerragudi Brahmagiri

N man &

INDEX

ba r ic o

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nds Isla

Important cities

Figure 4.1 Principal cities and inscriptions of the Mauryan Empire

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44 | Chapter 4 Empires, Social, and Cultural Exchange first king in the Indian history that excavated his records on rocks. His inscriptions were most valuable source to reconstruct the ancient Indian history; especially they reconstructed the history of Mauryan dynasty. The Ashokan inscriptions are found all over Indian subcontinents especially in India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. There are two types of inscription found: one on rock, which is called Rock Edicts and another on pillars, which is called Pillar Edicts. These inscriptions were discovered almost at 47 different sites. The Minor Rock Edict was found at one place of Madhya Pradesh and three places in Karnataka, in which they mention the name of Ashoka. All other inscriptions referred king as Devanampiya, which means beloved of the God and Piyadassi. Most of these inscriptions found in ancient highway routes and these were written in four different scripts; for example, inscriptions found in Afghanistan are written in Greek and Aramaic script is used, while those found in Pakistan are written in Prakrit language and Kharosthi script is used. In all other areas, these inscriptions are in Prakrit language and written in Brahmi script.

Kalinga War and Ashoka’s Dhamma Kalinga was the ancient name of coastal Orissa. Kalinga was independent neighbouring state of the Mauryan Empire. We do not know why Ashoka fought a war against them. However, some evidences show that Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. This war involved high-level violence and massacre. After this war, Ashoka was very horrified and he decided not to fight wars anymore. Ashoka was the only king in the known history who returned back the areas he won in war. After the war of Kalinga, there was a major change in Ashoka ruling policies. These changes are known as dhamma. Ashoka’s dhamma was not a religious practice. His dhamma did not involve worshiping of a God or other religious rituals. It was totally based on the moral aspect of everyday life. In his inscriptions, Ashoka defined him as father and his people as his children. It is his duty to teach them these moral lessons for their better life. The Ashoka faced many problems in his regime, such as religious and ideological conflicts of different groups, animals were sacrificed at mass level, servants and slaves were ill-treated, and quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. According to Ashoka’s inscriptions, the head of the state should bear the responsibility to solve the problem. Therefore, he appointed officers who are known as dhamma mahamatta. Dhamma mahamatta went to every part of Mauryan Empire and taught dhamma to people. Ashoka inscribed his messages on rocks and pillars and sent the officials to read his messages for those could not read it. Ashoka sent mission to other lands such as Egypt, Syria, Greece, and Sri Lanka. He built roads, rest houses, and dug wells on highways. He arranged medical facilities for human beings as well as for animals. Ashoka ruled from 273 BCE to 232 BCE. After Ashoka, the Mauryan empire sustained almost 100 years.

Administration of the Mauryan Empire Some sources such as Buddhist, Jain, and Greek writings, Arthashastra gave some important information about Mauryan administration. The whole empire divided into five major political

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Unit I History | 45 centres—the capital Pataliputra and the four provincial centres of Suvarnagiri, Tosali, Ujjain, and Taxila. All these provincial divisions were mentioned in Ashokan inscriptions. One important question is that could this vast empire have had a uniformed administrative system? If we analyse the expansion of the empire, it was too diverse and vast. The geographical conditions of the empire were different; for example, hilly terrain of Afghanistan and the coastal area of Orissa. Historians assume that the strongest administrative control was around the capital area and the provincial centres. The provincial centres were chosen carefully; for example, both Ujjain and Taxila were situated on the long distance trade routes. Suvarnagiri, which literally means Golden Mountain, was probably the gold mines of Karnataka. The transportation system in both the land and river was vital for the existence of the empire. The arrangements of transportation were good, and hence, the journey from centre to provinces could have taken weeks and not months. The army was important for the stable state. Megasthenes mentions about a committee with six subcommittees, which was coordinating the military activities in empire. Table 4.1 will explain the working of subcommittees. Table 4.1 Working of the army’s subcommittees Subcommittees

Works

First committee

Navy related arrangements

Second committee

Transport and provisions related work

Third committee

Foot soldiers related arrangements

Fourth committee

Hours related arrangements

Fifth committee

Chariots related arrangements

Sixth committee

Elephants related arrangements

Source: NCERT textbook, Class XII, Themes of Indian History (Ancient)-I, Theme–II: Kings, Farmers and Towns-Early States and Economies (C. 600 BCE 600 CE), pp. 34

Army Committee of the Mauryan Empire: Their Subcommittees and Responsibilities With the strong military base, king Ashoka also tried to hold his empire by propagating dhamma. The principles of dhamma were simple and virtually universally applicable. The special officers were appointed for dhamma, which was known as dhamma mahamatta.

NEW NOTION OF KINGSHIP IN DECCAN AND FURTHER SOUTH INDIA The new kingdoms emerged in the Deccan and further south. These new kingdoms included the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas in Tamilnadu. The Sangam texts contain poems describing the chiefs. The Cholas occupied the Kaveri River delta and their adjoining regions. The regions of Kanchi were also part of Chola kingdom, which is known as Cholamandalam. The Chola kingdom was situated towards the north-east of the Pandya kingdom. The Chola kings had some remarkable

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46 | Chapter 4 Empires, Social, and Cultural Exchange victories in that region; for example, in the 2nd century BCE, the Chola king Elara conquered Sri Lanka and ruled it over almost 50 years. The most distinguished Chola king was Karikala. Karikala defeated Chera and Pandya kings in the great Battle of Venni, near Tanjore. Karikala had a powerful navy and he conquered Sri Lanka. He built 160 km of long irrigation channel and all these lead to the growth of agriculture, craft, trade, and commerce. He was a great patron of literature and promoted education. After Karikala, the successors of Karikala were weak and family members fought with each other for the power. The Cholas declined and after the defeat by the Pallavas, the Cholas were reduced in small number.

Thanesar

Kanauj

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Bharuch SATAVAHANA Ajanta Bay of Bengal Amaravati Aihole

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ds lan r Is

an & Nic oba

ERA CH

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PALLAVA Mahabalipuram Kanchipuram Arikamedu INDEX Puhar Inner State Madurai

Cities Cities conquered by the Guptas

Figure 4.2 Important cities and kingdoms

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Unit I History | 47

Pandyas The Pandya kingdom was located at modern district Tirunelveli, Madurai, and Ramnad. Madurai was the capital of the Pandya kingdom. The Sangam literature gives valuable information about some of the Pandya kings. Nedunjeliyan was known as the greatest Pandya king. He defeated the combined force of Cheras, Cholas, and five others in the Battle of Madurai. He ruled around 210 CE. Under the Pandya kings, the capital Madurai and port city Korkai became the great centres of trade and commerce in the south Indian region. The Pandya kingdom had trade relations with the Roman Empire. They send embassies to the Trojan and the Roman emperor Augustus court.

Cheras The Cheras was also known as Keralaputras. They were situated in the west and north of the Pandya kingdom. Like the Pandyas and Cholas, Cheras had the same importance in the south Indian history. The Chera ruler Nedum Cheralathan conquered the Kadambas. He fought a battle with the father of Chola king Karikala and both the kings were killed in the battle. According to Chera tradition, Senguttuvan was the greatest king of the Chera dynasty. One of the interesting facts is that some of the kings of all these three kingdoms claimed that they had victories expansion to the Himalayas like the Chera king Nedum Cheralathan called himself Imayavaramban. Imayavaramban means that he had the Himalaya mountains as the north boundary of his kingdom. However, there was no evidence to support to this argument. These three kingdoms constantly fought with each other and regularly fought with Sri Lanka.

Satavahanas of Deccan After the fall of the Mauryan Empire, a powerful kingdom was established by the Satavahanas. Satavahanas was also known as Andhra. The Aitareya Brahmana mentions Andhra as ancient people. The Greek writer Pliny mentions about Andhras in his writings. He mentioned that Andhra were powerful people who had possessed large numbers of villages and towns. They had strong army that has 100,000 infantries, 2000 horses, and 1000 elephants. During the Mauryan age, they were part of the empire but when the Mauryan Empire became weak, they declared themselves free. Simuka was the founder of this dynasty. He ruled from 235 BCE to 213 BCE. Simuka was succeeded by his brother Krishna. Satakarni was the third king of this dynasty. In Nanaghat inscription, it had description of his achievements; for example, he conquered western Malwa, Vidarbha, and Narmada Valley, which known as Anup. He performed two Ashvamedha Yagnas in his regime. He had known as the lord of Dakshinapatha. Satavahanas made substantial donations for renovation and decoration of Sanchi Stupas and monasteries. Gautamiputra Satakarni was the next important king of Satavahanas. He ruled almost 56 years. He conquered Malwa from the Sungas. After Satakarni-II, Satavahana Empire expansion set back. Nahapana had conquered some parts of Satavahana’s territory. A large number of Nahapana’s coins were found in the Nasik area. During the regime of Gautamiputra Satakarni, Satavahana

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48 | Chapter 4 Empires, Social, and Cultural Exchange became powerful again. His achievements are recorded in Nasik inscriptions of Gautami Balashri. This inscription was excavated after his death. In this inscription, he was described as destroyer of Sakas, Yavanas, and Pahlavas. He threw Nahapana from his territory and used his silver coins with his seal. He re-conquered the northern Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Konkan, and Malwa from Sakas. Gautamiputra was succeeded by Vasisthiputra Sri Pulmavi in 130 CE. Pulmavi ruled about 24 years and most of his coins and inscriptions have been found in Andhra Pradesh; this means that under his regime, Andhra had become a part of the Satavahana Empire. He married the daughter of Saka king Rudradaman. However, Rudradaman defeated the next Satavahana king twice. He took Aparanta and Anupa from Satavahanas. Yajna Sri Satakarni was the last great Satavahana ruler. He ruled from 165 CE to 195 CE. His inscriptions were found in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh. The distribution of his coins pointed out that he extended his kingdom from Bay of Bengal in the east to Arabian sea in the west. The depiction of ship with a fish and conch on his coins indicates maritime trade and activities during his regime. The successors of Yajna were weak and not capable to govern such a large empire. When Abhiras seized Maharashtra and Ikshvakus and Pallavas appropriated the eastern provinces, the Satavahana Empire was collapsed and ruled over small territory.

THE ERA OF FOREIGN INVADERS: THE INDO-GREEKS (YAVANAS), THE PARTHIANS, THE SAKA, AND THE KUSHANS Yavanas invasions started in the reign of Pushyamitra Sung. Pushyamitra Sung contemporary Patanjali mentioned this invasion. Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitram mentioned about Vasumitra’s conflict with Yavanas. The Yavana word maybe used for Ionian Greeks but later it was used for Greek nationality. The Yavanas were the first to establish foreign supremacy on Indian soil, and then, they were succeeded by several central Asian tribes. These tribes invaded India and established their political authority. Let us discuss here about some of these tribes:

Indo-Greeks The Indo-Greek rulers were known as Yavanas. The Greek Emperor Alexander was invaded in the western part of Indian subcontinent. After the sudden death of Alexander in Babylon, his empire comes under the rule of his Generals. The Bactria and the adjoining areas of Iran were known as Parthia. Around 250 BCE, Diodotus, the governor of Bactria, was revolted against the Greek and proclaimed himself independent from Greeks. Some notable Indo-Greek kings are Euthydemus, Demetrius, Eucratides, and Menander. Menander was the most famous king among the other Indo-Greek rulers. Menander ruled from 165 BCE to 146 BCE for almost 25 years. His capital was Sakala (modern Sialkot, Pakistan). The Greek writings tell us that he was a great ruler and his territory extended from Afghanistan to present-day Uttar Pradesh (India) in the east and Gujarat in the south. He was converted into Buddhism by the Buddhist monk Nagasena. Nagasena and Menander’s debate on philosophy and

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Unit I History | 49 Buddhism was in the form of questions and answers that were recorded as Milinda panha or the Questions of Milinda. The Indo-Greek rulers are the first ones in the history of India whose coins carried the names and portraits of kings. They were the first rulers who issued gold coins. The coins of Indo-Greek were well-known for the depiction of artistic and the realistic portraits.

Parthians (Pahlavas) The Parthians were Iranian people. They are also known as Pahlavas. We have little information about them and they are based on their coins and inscriptions. The earliest king of this dynasty was Vonones. Vonones captured the power of Sistan and Arachosia. He adopted the title of ‘great king of king.’ Spalirises was the successor of Vonones. King Gondophernes was the greatest ruler of the Parthian dynasty. He ruled from 19 CE to 45 CE. He became the master of both Sakas– Pahlavas area in the eastern Iran and western India. After Gondophernes, the Pahlavas rule ended in India and Kushans took it over.

Sakas The Sakas destroyed the northwestern Indian Indo-Greek rule. The Sakas were also known as Scythians. Sakas were nomadic tribes of central Asia. Around 165 CE, they turned out of their homeland by Yueh-chi and forced them towards India. Yueh-chi was later known as Kushans. The Sakas invaded Bactria and Parthia and then they entered in India. The Sakas entered India in five branches and they settled in various parts of northwestern and northern India. One Branch of Sakas settled in Afghanistan, second in Punjab, third in Mathura, fourth in Maharashtra and Saurashtra, and fifth in central India. The Sakas ruled from 1st century BCE to 4th century CE in different parts of the Indian subcontinent. The most prominent Saka ruler in western India was Nahapana. Various inscriptions of Nahapana were found in Maharashtra and he was mentioned in records of the Satavahana rulers. The Saka ruler Rudradaman was the most illustrious ruler of the central Indian Saka branch. He was ruled from 130 CE to 150 CE. The Junagarh inscription provide us important information about Rudradaman and his rule was extended over the area of Sindh, Saurashtra, Gujarat, north Konkan, Malwa, and some parts of Rajasthan. He repaired the Sudarshan lake dam, which is built by the provincial governor of Chandragupta Maurya in Kathiawad. Ujjain was the capital of Rudradaman and became a centre of education and culture. Many scholars believe that the Saka era was found by the Saka rulers. This dynasty rule was ended with the defeat by the Gupta king Chandragupta II around 390 CE.

Kushans Around 165 CE in central Asia, Yueh-Chi came in conflict with a neighbouring tribe Hiung-nu. Hiung-nu defeat Yueh-Chi and forced them to move out of their land. Because of the Great Wall of China, they did not enter into the Chinese territory and they moved to the west side. In the

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50 | Chapter 4 Empires, Social, and Cultural Exchange west, they met with the Sakas. The Sakas ruled in Bactria and they forced to Yueh-Chi to leave their land. They came to India and settled down in the land of Sakas. They adopted agriculture as a profession. In India, they are known as Kushans. According to Chinese sources, the Kujula Kadphises was the first great king of Yueh-Chi. Kujula Kadphises was also known as Kadphises I. Kadphises I united all the five groups of Yueh-Chi and established his authority over Afghanistan. He called himself Dharma-thida and Sacha Dharma-thida means steadfast in true faith. Kadphises I was succeeded by his Werna Kadphises, who is also known as Kadphises-II. Kadphises expanded his territory up to Punjab or maybe the Ganga–Yamuna Doab. He issued gold and copper coins that referred him as a great king and devotee of Lord Shiva. Kadphises II was succeeded by Kanishka. Kanishka was the greatest king in all Kushan kings. Kanishka ruled from 78CE to 101 CE. Some of the historians view that Kanishka was the founder of Saka era. In his regime, the Kushans Empire was extended from Khotan in northwest to Banaras in the east, Kashmir in the north to Saurashtra and Malwa in the south. His coins were found in all of these areas. Purushapura, the modern Peshawar, was the capital of Kanishka. He was the follower of Buddhism and the fourth Buddhist council was held in his regime. Asvaghosa, Parsva, Vasumitra, Charaka, and Nagarjuna were some notable scholars of his court. In his regime, Mathura and Taxila became the great centres of art and culture. After Kanishka, Vasishka, Huvishka, Vasudeva, and others ruled. These names are purely Indian names that show Kushans were completely assimilated with the Indian culture. After Vasishka rule, the Kushans power declined. Kushans continue ruling in small territory up to 4th century.

Gupta Empire and Economic Prosperity After the Mauryan Empire, many kings tried to establish a large empire but most of them could not succeed to establish a stable and powerful empire. Around 320 CE in north India, an empire emerged in leadership of Chandragupta I, and in a brief time, they expanded themselves on large scale. Soon, he established himself and his sovereign empire. They ended the provincial ruler’s era that emerged after the fall of the Mauryan Empire. The Gupta period was known as ‘Golden Age’ in the Indian history. The Gupta Empire was established by Sri Gupta. However, the journey of the empire started in the era Chandragupta I regime. Chandragupta I was the son of Ghatotkacha. The marriage alliances for king Chandragupta I was important for establishing his power. He married with Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi. Lichchhavi gave them iron and mines in dowry. Lichchhavis was the most powerful state at that time, and there are some evidences that show their importance; for example, Chandragupta’s coins had portrait of Chandragupta I and Kumaradevi and Lichchhavi written on them. Another example is the Allahabad inscription, where the Gupta king Samudragupta proudly called himself Lichchhavis-duhita, which means the son of Lichchhavi’s daughter. Chandragupta I had the title Maharajadhiraja. He issued gold coins. Chandragupta I was succeeded by his son Samudragupta in 340 CE. According to Allahabad inscription, he was the greatest king and conqueror in contemporary kings. He was chosen because of his qualities. The Allahabad inscription was composed on Ashokan pillar by his official Harisena.

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Unit I History | 51 In this inscription, he mentions Samudragupta’s great military achievements like he defeated 9 kings of Aryavarta. Another significant military achievement was his south Indian military campaign, where he defeated 12 kings and princes of south Indian kingdoms. After defeating these kings, Samudragupta did not kept them under his control directly; rather he gave back these territories to their kings and princes and developed alliances with them. After these military exercises, he performed Ashvamedha Yagna. In Ashvamedha Yagna, he issued gold and sacrificed the horse. In Allahabad inscription, some contemporary political powers also mentioned, such as Saka, Kushans, Murundas, and Simhalas (Sri Lanka). According to some Chinese sources, he had good relationship with other countries; for example, Sri Lankan king Meghavarna had sent an embassy asking his permission to build a monastery in Bodh Gaya. Samudragupta had multitalented personality. He was good warrior and wrote poems; therefore, he was known as kaviraja. Some of his coins had portrait in which he is playing veena. In 380 CE, king Samudragupta died and his son Chandragupta II became the king. Chandragupta II was the most famous and powerful king of the Gupta dynasty. In his regime, Gupta Empire reached at its highest glory. In his most famous victory, he defeated the Saka. After this great victory, Chandragupta adopted the title of Vikramaditya. He issued silver coins on this victory. Delhi’s iron pillar and inscriptions are good sources of information about his area. His empire extended in east Bengal to northwest frontier in the west. In south, he established matrimonial relations with Vakatakas. His daughter Prabhavatigupta was married with Vakataka king Rudra sen II. This matrimonial relationship helps to control the southern areas. The regime of Chandragupta II was well-known for its high-standard arts, literatures, and cultural progresses. Kalidasa was in his court. Chinese scholar Fa-Hien travelled India in 405 CE and he stayed in up to 411 CE. His travel records are helpful to understanding the social and cultural aspects of Chandragupta II regime. King Chandragupta II died in 413CE. Kumargupta I became the king of the Gupta Empire. He was the son of Chandragupta II. Kumargupta ruled almost 40 years. He performed Ashvamedha but we do not know about his military achievements. He issued coins that indicate he performed Ashvamedha. Since he had ruled for 40 years, we can understand that he had administrative capability to govern large empire and maintain it successfully. In the last years of his regime, he faced some challenges of Pushyamitra. Kumargupta was succeeded by Skandagupta in 455 CE. Skandagupta was the last Gupta king who tried to maintain his empire. His regime was full of wars. He defeated the Hunas; however, at the end of his regime, attacks of the Hunas were more frequent and they created biggest challenges for Gupta king. Skandagupta repaired the Chandragupta Maurya’s Sudharshan lake dam. Skandagupta died in 467 CE. After his death, the Gupta Empire gradually declined. It sustained almost 100 years after Skandagupta death. In 512 CE, the Hunas attacked on north India in the leadership of Toramana and he captured a larger part of the Gupta Empire in the north India. After Toramana, his son Mihirakula ruled. Mihirakula invaded Magadha and defeated by Gupta king Baladitya. According to other inscriptions, like Malwa, mention that Mihirakula was defeated.

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52 | Chapter 4 Empires, Social, and Cultural Exchange

After Gupta Empire After the decline of the Gupta Empire, the regional kingdoms came into power such as Gauda in Bengal and Valabhi. In 606 CE, Harshavardhana became the king. He was one of the earliest kings whose history was well-documented. His biography Harshacharita was written by his courter poet Banabhatta. Another reliable source was the writings of the Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang. Hiuen Tsang wrote in detail about his regime. He extended his boundaries on whole of the north India. He wrote Nagananda, Ratnavali, and Priyadarshika. He was an efficient administrator and he was doing great charities for his people. Further, he had built rest houses and hospitals. He donated land grants to Buddhists, Jains, and Brahmanas. In every 5 years, he celebrated religious festivals in Prayaga, where he performed dana. In 647 CE, Harshavardhana died. With the death of Harshavardhana, the era of empires was ended.

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CHANGES The time period from 600 BCE to 600 CE was the time period of social and cultural changes. In 600 CE to the 1st century was the time period of emergence of different type of ideologies in the India subcontinent. Around 6th century BCE, Buddhism and Jainism emerged against the Brahmanical rituals. Buddhism and Jainism began social changes in the Indian society. Most of the people were against these rituals and they were attracted to Buddhism, Jainism, and other nonBrahmanical ideologies. Around 3rd century BCE, the one of the major change happened. The tradition developed and most of the texts came in the form of writings. The great epics Ramayana and Mahabharata were available in the written format. These epics were good source for understanding how social division developed. However, these sources are less reliable because they are edited time to time. Therefore, it is not possible to identify the actual time period of these epics. The new form of Indian philosophy was emerged in this era and they were known as Upanishad. Another type of texts written in this duration were Arthashastra, Jainism, and Buddhism texts. Arthashastra was helpful to understand the Mauryan time’s social and economic situation. Buddhist and Jain religious texts are good source to understand social and economic situation of the people. The smaritigranth was the important texts of ancient India. These smaritigranth provide us important aspect of social rule and regulation, which they want to promote in the society. From 2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE, many different types of literatures were written, such as Kamasutra, Natya Shastra, and Mudrarakshasa. Travellers’ records are also important source of understanding social and cultural changes. These records present the contemporary situation. The monuments are also helpful to understand the social and cultural changes. Let us try to understand it with the example of Sanchi stupa. Sanchi stupa was built around 3rd century BCE. It was a huge structure. This structure gives us the idea of social life and their religious rituals; for example, these stupa give us the idea of Buddha’s life. In Sanchi stupa, their outer boundary is full of miniatures and these miniatures belong to different parts of society. In the era of Kushans, Taxila and Mathura became the great centres of art and culture. The sculptures of the era present

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Unit I History | 53 the social and cultural changes of that period. They depict the way of religious and social life. Around 4th century CE, temples emerged. These temples tell us the journey of social and cultural changes of that era. We all know that during 1000 years, many tribes came to India and they mingled in the Indian society. We all know about chaturvarna system; however, in this period, caste system expanded themselves from fourth categories. Women’s role in society was well-defined in this era and rules became rigid. New types of rituals were accepted by the society.

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ In 600 BC, we saw the emergence of Mahajanapadas. ➨ During the time period from 6th century to 4th century BC, Magadha emerged as a powerful state in the Indian subcontinent. ➨ The contemporary Buddhist and Jain texts provide us useful information about Magadha’s ruling kings such as Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, and Mahapadma Nanda. These rulers played important role in the emergence of Magadha. ➨ Magadha was located in between Ganga and their tributaries. It is some part of the presentday Bihar. ➨ Rajagriha/Rajgir was the capital of Magadha. Rajagriha/Rajgir means the house of the king. ➨ The Haryanka: around 542 BCE, Magadha came under the leadership of Bimbisara (542 BCE– 493 BCE). Bimbisara belonged to the Haryanka dynasty. ➨ Bimbisara was killed by his son Ajatasatru and he became king of the Magadha. Ajatasatru ruled around 492 BCE to 444 BC for almost 50 years. ➨ Ajatasatru was contemporary of Mahavir and Buddha. ➨ Ajatasatru was succeeded by Udayin. Udayin’s region is important because he transferred his capital from Rajgir to Pataliputra. ➨ After Udayin, the Haryanka dynasty rule was over and it was succeeded by Shishunaga. The Shishunaga’s dynasty ruled for almost 100 years. ➨ Shishunaga’s dynasty was succeeded by Nanda. The dynasty of Nandas proved themselves as the strongest dynasty of Magadha. Nanda ruled the larger part of the Indian subcontinent. ➨ Mahapadma Nanda claimed Ekarat, which means the sole sovereign. ➨ The Nandas were the first non-Kshatriya rulers in the Indian history. ➨ The Mauryan Empire was found by Chandragupta Maurya in 321 BCE. ➨ In 1830, James Prinsep, an officer of the East India Company was deciphered the earliest inscriptions, which used two scripts Brahmi and Kharosthi, and coins. He found that most of these inscriptions and coins mentioned a king who they referred as ‘Piyadassi’. Piyadassi means ‘pleasant to behold.’ ➨ King Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan Empire. He ruled around 324 BCE–300 BCE. ➨ Buddhist texts Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa described Chandragupta as Kshatriya of Mauriya’s branch of Sakyas, who lived in Pipphalivana (eastern Utter Pradesh).

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54 | Chapter 4 Empires, Social, and Cultural Exchange ➨ In Vishakhadatta’s play Mudrarakshasa, he used Vrishala and Kulhina terms for Chandragupta. These terms mean that a person is of humble origin. ➨ Sandrocottus of the Greek writers identified as Chandragupta Maurya. ➨ Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by Bindusara. ➨ In 273 BCE, after the death of Bindusara, Ashoka became the king of the Mauryan Empire. ➨ Many inscriptions referred king as Devanampiya, which means beloved of the God and Piyadassi. ➨ Ashoka’s dhamma was not a religious practice. His dhamma did not involve worshiping of a God or other religious rituals. It was totally based on the moral aspects of everyday life. ➨ Ashoka ruled from 273 BCE to 232 BCE. After Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire sustained almost 100 years. ➨ Arthashastra gave some important information about Mauryan administration. ➨ After the fall of Mauryan Empire, a powerful kingdom was established by the Satavahanas. ➨ Satavahanas was also known as Andhra. ➨ Simuka was the founder of Satavahana dynasty. ➨ The Indo-Greek rulers were known as Yavanas. ➨ Some notable Indo-Greek kings are Euthydemus, Demetrius, Eucratides, and Menander. ➨ Nagasena and Menander’s debate on philosophy and Buddhism was in the form of questions and answers recorded as Milinda panha or the Questions of Milinda. ➨ The Parthians were Iranian people. ➨ King Gondophernes was the greatest ruler of the Parthian dynasty. ➨ The Sakas destroyed the northwestern Indian Indo-Greek rule. The Sakas were also known as Scythians. ➨ Yueh-chi was later known as Kushans. ➨ The Saka ruler Rudradaman was the most illustrious ruler of the central Indian Saka branch. He ruled from 130 CE to 150 CE. ➨ Around 320 CE in north India, an empire emerged in the leadership of Chandragupta I and in a short time period, they expanded themselves on large scale. Soon, he established himself and his sovereign empire. ➨ Chandragupta I had the title of Maharajadhiraja. ➨ Chandragupta I was succeeded by his son Samudragupta 340 CE. According to Allahabad inscriptions, he was the greatest king and conqueror in contemporary kings. ➨ Chandragupta II was the most famous and powerful king of the Gupta dynasty. In his regime, Gupta Empire reached its highest glory. ➨ Kumargupta I became the king of the Gupta Empire. He was the son of Chandragupta II and he ruled almost 40 years. ➨ In 606 CE, Harshavardhana became the king. He was one of the earliest kings whose history was well-documented. His biography Harshacharita was written by his courter poet Banabhatta. ➨ He wrote Nagananda, Ratnavali, and Priyadarshika. ➨ In 647 CE, Harshavardhana died.

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Unit I History | 55

Check Your Progress 1. Discuss about the emergence and development of Mauryan Empire. 2. What is dhamma? Describe in the context of king Ashoka. 3. Describe the role that Alexander’s sudden death played in the establishment of Mauryan Empire?

4. Write short notes on the following: (a) Samudragupta (b) Saka dynasty (c) Indo-Greek rulers (d) Harshavardhana

Objective Questions 1. During the time period of 6th century to 4th century BC, ____________ emerged as a powerful state in the Indian subcontinent. (a) Avanti (b) Kosala (c) Magadha (d) None of these 2. What is the name of the capital of Magadha? (a) Dhargir (b) Shargir (c) Nargir (d) Rajgir 3. Bimbisara belongs to: (a) Saka dynasty (b) Kushans dynasty (c) Haryanka dynasty (d) None of these 4. Ajatasatru was contemporary of: (a) Mahatma Gandhi and Mahavir (b) Chandragupta Maurya and Chandragupta I (c) Buddha and Mahavir (d) Ashoka and Samudragupta

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5. Udayin transferred his capital from: (a) Magadha to Kosala (b) Avanti to Taxila (c) Taxila to Ujjain (d) Rajgir to Pataliputra 6. The conversation between Nagasena and Menander is known as: (a) Nagapanho (b) Sagapanho (c) Milinda panha (d) None of these 7. Yueh-chi was later known as: (a) Saka (b) Yavana (c) Kushans (d) Pahlava 8. Parthians were: (a) Greek people (b) Yueh-Chi people (c) Huna people (d) Iranian people 9. King Mihirakula belongs to: (a) Kushan (b) Maurya

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56 | Chapter 4 Empires, Social, and Cultural Exchange (c) Gupta (d) Huna 10. Who adopted the title of Maharajadhiraja? (a) Chandragupta Maurya (b) Chandragupta I (c) Chandragupta II (d) Chandragupta III 11. __________ was succeeded by Ashoka. (a) Chandragupta (b) Bindusara (c) Bimbisara (d) Menander 12. The Saka ruler Rudradaman ruled from _____________ (a) 130 CE to 150 BCE (b) 130 BCE to 150 CE (c) 130 BCE to 150 BCE (d) 130 CE to 150 CE

(c) Karikala (d) Rudradaman 16. The Pandya kingdom had trade relation with: (a) Mauryan Empire (b) Gupta Empire (c) Greek Empire (d) Roman Empire 17. Karikala belongs to: (a) Chera (b) Chalukya (c) Chola (d) Satavahana 18. Ekarat means: (a) Whole sovereign (b) Role sovereign (c) Mole sovereign (d) Sole sovereign

13. King Harshavardhana died in: (a) 647 BCE (b) 647 BC (c) 647 CE (d) None of these

19. Mihirakula was defeated by: (a) Vikramaditya (b) Samudragupta (c) Kumargupta (d) Baladitya

14. Nahapana belongs to: (a) Kushan (b) Huna (c) Maurya (d) Saka

20. The Parthians were known as: (a) Yavana (b) Huna (c) Kushan (d) Pahlava

15. Sudarshan lake dam was repaired by: (a) Nahapana (b) Gautamiputra Satakarni

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CHAPTER

Change and Continuity

LEARNING OBjECTIvES • • • •

Understand the emergence of new kingdoms with their nature Familiarise the concept of change and continuity with reference of political and social aspects Explore the process of establishment of empire with examples such as Chola Empire Know and understand the administration of Chola empire

INTRODuCTION The time period from 7th century to 12th century CE was the time era of continuity. These changes and continuities happened in every aspect of life such as social, political, and economic. These changes played important role in the social, political, and economic life. This five-century period created the base for further social and political changes. Let us try to understand these changes and try to understand their importance in the Indian history. In the 7th century CE, after the decline of Harshavaradhana empire, many new kingdoms emerged in all Indian subcontinents and some of them were continue. Chalukyas of Badami, Pallavas of Kanchipuram, and Pandyas of Madurai emerged as powerful dynasties. Chalukyas began their rule in Badami and Aihole. They extended their kingdom between Nasik and upper Godavari region. Pulakeshin II was the greatest king of Chalukyas and he ruled from 610 CE to 642 CE. Chalukyas was succeeded by Rashtrakutas. Dantidurga found the Rashtrakuta dynasty and he defeated Chalukyas in 752 CE. Gangas and Kadambas were other powerful emerging dynasties. Gangas’ king Durvinita was the prominent ruler and the scholar of Kannada and Sanskrit literature. Kadamba dynasty was found by Mayur Sarman. Kakusthavarman was the most powerful king and great administrator of Kadamba dynasty. He ruled from 435 CE to 455 CE. The southern peninsula was ruled by Pallava, Pandya, and Chola kingdoms.

EMERGENCE OF NEW KINGS AND KINGDOMS

Process of Emergence of New Dynasties In the 7th century CE, the process of emergence of new powerful dynasty was different because 7th century was the era of big warrior chiefs and landlords. These warrior chiefs and warlords

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58 | Chapter 5 Change and Continuity were in powerful situation and existing kings acknowledged them as Samantas. These landlords presented gifts to kings and provided necessary military help when the king is in need. These Samantas were given rights by the king. After sometime, they gained power and wealth. They became powerful and they themselves adopted the title of Mahasamanta and Mahamandalesvara.

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Figure 5.1 New kingdoms from 700 CE to 1200 CE

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Unit I History | 59 These titles refer to the great lord of the region. Some of the landlords became more powerful than the kings and they announced themselves independent; for example, Rashtrakutas were the subordinates of the Chalukyas but in the mid of the 8th century, Rashtrakutas announced their land as an independent state. The Rashtrakutas chief Dantidurga was performed Hiranyagarbha ritual with the help of Brahmanas. Hiranyagarbha rituals believe in the rebirth of sacrificer as Kshatriya. This ritual was performed by people who were not Kshatriyas by birth. This was not the only way to establish independent kingdom; in other cases, the use of military skills and strength is used to become independent powerful dynasties such as Kadamba Mayurasharma and Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra. Kadamba Mayurasharma and Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra were Brahmanas. They gave up their traditional professions and set themselves as a warrior. They established their kingdom in Karnataka and Rajasthan. If we try to understand the process of formation of these states, there was a continuity and change. The legitimacy of state and the ruling dynasties was the biggest concern for the newly established kingdoms. The legitimacy of newly established kingdoms was depended on the religious approval. Ruler can only be Kshatriya. If non-Kshatriya became the king, they have to perform some religious rituals and then only their kingship gets legitimation. Hiranyagarbha ritual was one of the rituals, which was performed by those who were not born Kshatriya. The legitimacy depended on religious authority. This was in continuity of religious authority to legitimise the political authority. Most of the kings adopted titles such as Maharaja, Maharajadhiraja, Vikramaditya, and chakravartisamrat. Most of the kings performed some religious rituals that were not only related with the political supremacy but also related with religious legitimacy like Ashvamedha Yagna. It is also important to know that the process of change and continuity was not restricted to the polity; rather it was also deeply associated with society. The four Varna systems did not exist in this era. This was the era of caste. Most of the castes were based on the work that people do in their day-to-day life and gradually they shaped them into a particular caste. Kumhar, Lohara, Khati, and Sunar castes were based on their work skills. Caste system became vast and complex. We are not able to define which caste is Kshatriya and which is Vaishya or Shudra. The relationship with Brahmins played a crucial role in making some Kshatriyas, and during this process, social structure also affected.

Kingdoms’ Administration Administration is the base of state; without good administration, the state cannot run properly. We all are well-known about the titles such as Maharaja, Maharajadhiraja, Chakravarti Samarat, and Tribhuvana Chakravarti. These are not titles but these are helpful in understanding the administration also. Samantas were the reality of this era. They were subordinates of these kings. Revenue was the most important thing for the state to sustain. Revenue was collected by these big Samantas for peasants, herders, artisans, and traders. The taxes are imposed by the king and there are different types of taxes imposed by the king. For example, the inscriptions of Cholas were found in Tamilnadu. In this inscription, 400 types of taxes were mentioned. Most of

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60 | Chapter 5 Change and Continuity the taxes were not taken in cash but those were mentioned as vetti (forces labour and sometimes used as part time soldiers) and kadamai. Kadamai means land revenue. The taxation was different from the present tax system. These taxes were imposed on houses, palm trees, property, cattle, and so on. The king used these sources for establishment and construction of forts and temples. The revenue collection work was done by specially recruited officials. These officials were from influential families. Most of them were king’s relatives. In military, top positions were held by king’s close relatives. The Samantas served military services for king.

Prashastis Prashastis was different form of inscription. They did not contain full details but they projected the view of the kings. The prashastis were informative and contained the ideology of the king. They offer an overall view of an ideal king of different times and different regions. Most of them were composed by administrator.

CHOLAS ANALYSED THE MAIN COMPONENTS Chola kingdom was the oldest kingdom in south India. From 2nd century BCE to around 5th century CE, they ruled as a powerful kingdom. The region of Kanchi was also part of Chola kingdom, which is known as Cholamandalam. The Chola kingdom was situated towards the north-east of the Pandya kingdom. The Chola kings had some remarkable victories in that region; for example, during the 2nd century BCE, the Chola king Elara conquered Sri Lanka and ruled it over almost 50 years. The most distinguished Chola king was Karikala. Karikala defeated Chera and Pandya kings in the great battle of Venni, near Tanjore. Karikala had a powerful navy and he conquered Sri Lanka. He built 160-km long irrigation channel, and all these developments led to the growth of agriculture, craft, trade, and commerce. He was a great patron of literature and promoted education. After Karikala, the successors of Karikala were weak and family members fought with each other for the power. The Cholas declined and after the defeat by the Pallavas, and the Cholas were reduced to a small ruling area. Almost three centuries, the Cholas ruled in south India as a small kingdom. In these three centuries, Cholas ruled in small area of Uraiyur. They are the subordinates of Muttaraiyar, Pallava king of Kanchipuram. Vijayalaya belonged to ancient Chola family and he was ruling in small area of the Uraiyur. There was a conflict between the Pandya dynasty and Pallava dynasty. Vijayalaya took advantage of their conflict, and in 850 CE, he captured Tanjore from Muttaraiyar. He established imperial land of Chola dynasty. Nothing is wrong if we say Vijayalaya was the founder of medieval time of Chola kingdom. After Vijayalaya, Aditya I was the second king of the dynasty. In 885 CE, he defeated the Pandya king and occupied the Karnataka dynasty of Pandya. After his death, his son Parantaka-I became the king. In 925 CE, he conquered Sri Lanka, which was known as IIangai. Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola were the greatest rulers of the Chola dynasty. Rajaraja Chola was the great administrator and had good control on the kingdom. He conducted two-time

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Unit I History | 61

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Figure 5.2 The Chola Empire from 9th century to 12th century CE land survey; one of the surveys was conducted in 1000 CE. He built Brihadeeswarar temple in 1010 CE. Rajendra Chola was the greatest king of the Chola dynasty. He extended the boundaries of Chola kingdom from Tamil area to other areas; for example, he conquered Odisha, defeated the Pala dynasty of Bengal, and reached to Ganges River. He expended his kingdom in the northern India. In celebration of his victory on northern India, he built a new capital Gangaikonda Cholapuram. Now, his territory was falling from Ganga–Hooghly–Damodar basin in the north as well as in Sri Lanka and Maldives. He had good relations with other countries; for example,

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62 | Chapter 5 Change and Continuity he sent diplomatic mission to China in 1016 CE, 1035 CE, and 1077 CE. After Rajendra Chola, the Chola kings ruled almost 200 years.

Brihadeeswarar Temple and Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple: Their Importance in Chola Kingdom Brihadeeswarar temple of Tanjore was built by Chola King Rajaraja Chola I in 1010 CE. Brihadeeswarar was not only the temple but it was the symbol of power of the Chola kingdom. These temples were not only good examples of the Chola art and architecture, but these were the centres of crafts and artisans. These temples were empowered from land and other sources. The lands were granted by the kings and other people. The production of these land grants was tax free and their production was only used in maintaining temples day-to-day routine works. The temple hired large number of specialised peoples such as cooks, sweepers, musicians, dancers, and priests. These people lived at the nearest places of the temple. These temples were not only the worship places but also they emerged as social, cultural, and economic centres. A large number of artisans and craft persons were giving their services to pilgrims and temples. These temples were situated in the capitals of the kingdom, which means that these cities were political centres also. These temples are best examples of the Dravida style architecture. The Brihadeeswarar temple complex was spread in vast area. Its complex was built like a fortress. The temple had fivestorey Gopuram. The main shikhar of the temple was massive in size; it was 60-m high with 16 complicatedly articulated stories. The main entrance of Gopuram is built on exactly 30-m high. Normally, the Gopuram was smaller than Vimana. The Gopuram was built with 400 pillars. In Garbhagriha was circumambulation wraps around the massive lingam. The primary deity of the Brihadeeswarar temple was Lord Shiva. There are some of other statues situated in the temple. There are statues of Ashta Dikpalakas and these are Indra, Agni, Varuna, Kubera, Isana, Yama, and Vayu. The big structure is indicating that the temple had large number of special people such as cooks, priests, musicians, and sweepers. Some of the bronze idols were also found near the temple areas. These bronze idols are good examples of the finest works of bronze. Most of these bronze idols were deities. This means that these temples were promoters of arts and crafts. One of the finest examples of the Chola bronze work was the Lord Nataraja’s dancing statue.

Chola Empire: Agriculture and Irrigation The Chola empire mainly stands on the revenue collection. The larger part of revenue was the agricultural production. Without good agriculture production, larger revenue collection was not possible. The Chola kings tried different polices to increase the agricultural production. Chola king RajaRaja I did the land survey twice during his regime. These land surveys were helpful not only to assess the production but also they helped to understand the problems of peasants.

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Unit I History | 63 The agriculture was mainly based on rain water. Other sources were also used; however, their uses were limited. Chola king knew that the Kaveri river flows into several small branches before it lays down in the Bay of Bengal. These branches were useful because the overflow of these branches help to deposit fertile soils on the bank of these branches. These branches provide necessary moisture for the agriculture. In this area, mainly rice cultivated. Most of the areas of the kingdom were cultivating only two crops in a year. Further, most of these areas’ crops destroyed because of the less availability of water. If they wanted to increase production, they have to develop other sources of irrigation. The Chola king developed canals in larger area. The irrigation was helpful to increase rice and other crops’ cultivation. Agricultural production increased and the revenue increased. Chola kings developed larger level irrigation systems that indicate that they had vision of planning, source, and labour.

Chola Empire: Administration Administration is the spinal cord of the empire. If administration is not working properly, the king will not be able to rule properly. The Chola empire administration was one of the remarkable and distinguished parts. It was well-maintained and well-regulated. The Chola administration gives strength to the Chola kings to govern the entire empire easily. The Chola empire had some distinguished features. Let us try to understand those features and their works. The Chola empire was not centralised. They called their kingdom Rajyam/Rastrayam. The Rajyam was divided into number of subdivisions. These subdivisions were known as Mandalam. Mandalam means provinces. The main administrators in those Mandalam were close relatives of the king. Mostly, the important mandalams were under the control of Rajkumar (prince) or the noble families. Vengi and Madura, the two mandalams, were governed by the Chola prince. Other mandalams were administered by those families, which gave tribute to Chola king and merged themselves as part of the Chola King. The mandalams were also divided into another subdivision. This was known as Valanadu or Kottam. The Chola state used another subdivision: Nadu and Nagarams. Here, Nadu used for districts and Nagarams used for towns. Nadu was a group of villages. There were assemblies of different levels such as Nattra and Nagarattar. Nattra was the assembly of the Nadu and Nagarattar was the assembly of the Nagaram. The assembly of merchant and artisan groups was also known as Nagaram. Unfortunately, we do not have detail of their rules and regulations. In Nagaram, we had evidences of existence of Guilds or Srenis, Pugas. Guilds, Srenis, and Pugas were some of the examples of the different autonomous corporate organisations. These autonomous cooperative organisations were constituted by the artisans and craft persons. The village administration was well-organised and that was different from the Nagaram administration. The Chola inscriptions mentioned the presence of the assemblies on village level. There were three types of assemblies present: Ur, Sabha, and Mahasabha. The members of these assemblies were adult male members of the community. Ur was basically used for the most fertile land and had good irrigation system for agriculture. Further, it was also used for assembly that had an executive body like Abunganam. Ganam and Miyalunganam words are used as synonyms of the Abunganam.

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64 | Chapter 5 Change and Continuity The village society was mainly constituted by peasants. In Ur, peasants of the villages were divided into some categories like Vellalar word used for the cultivator groups. Vellalar was used for all peasants those who were involved in cultivation. In Vellalar, there were two types of peasants: Kaniyudaiyar and Ulukudi. Kaniyudaiyar was used for the land-owning farmers and Ulukudi was used for the tenant farmers. Vallas was identified for Shudra Varna. The Shudras in the Chola kingdom were not same as in the north. They are economically powerful and they hold lands that are the important base for the wealth. Other service groups such as potter and blacksmith had control on small plots of the land. The right to transfer land rights was an important aspect of the village community. The land transfers were done via sale or gifts. The rights of the land transfer was known as the Kani rights. The Kani rights signified the rights of possession over land. The Chola and Pandya land grants refer two sorts of the land rights: Karanmai and Mitatchi. Karanmai right was the right to cultivate and also the right to occupancy. It was also divided into two other rights: Kudi Nikki and Kudi Ninga. Kudi Nikki rights means a person previously situated in a village and removed or deprived from their rights. Kudi Ninga right for such peoples who were not to be disturbed. Mitatchi was a superior possessive right. In Chola empire, land was divided into many categories such as Brahmadeya, Vellanvagai, Shalabhoga, Pallichchhandam, Devadana, and Tirunamattukkani. Brahmadeya lands were those land grants that are given to Brahmanas by the kings. Because of these land grants, Brahmanas settled in large number at Kaveri valley. Vellanvagai lands were owned by the nonBrahmana peasants. Shalabhoga lands were granted for school and Pallichchhandam lands are those lands that are donated to Jain institutions. Devadana and Tirunamattukkani lands were those lands that are granted for temples. Their revenues were used for temple-related works. Meanwhile, Brahmadeya landholders became powerful. Sabha was the pure Brahmana assembly. The selection of a new member to the Sabha was done by the lucky draw. These assemblies had important role to maintain the administrative works. Their meetings and decisions were documented. Mahasabha was an important institution of the Chola Empire. Two records of king Parantaka I give us the detailed information about how Mahasabha work and the types of issues they dealt. These records mention that the local Mahasabha organised to decide the selection criteria of the members of Variyams. Variyams mean executive committee. The Mahasabhas had jurisdictional rights over the communal lands and the private lands. Mahasabha had ownership of village lands. Assemblies always tried to protect cultivators from harassment. They had right to transfer their jurisdiction to other organisations. Mahasabha had rights to reclaim on forest and water lands. They cooperated with the royal officials in land surveys and revenue collections. It had some rights to taxation. In village level, some duties were imposed by the state, such as Eccoru, Muttaiyal, and vetti. 1. Eccoru duty: This refers to the villager’s obligation to provide food for state officials. 2. Muttaiyal and vetti: They refer to the villager’s obligation to provide labour service for state works.

CHAPTER

Globe

LEARNING ObjECTIVES • Learn about the concept of globe • Understand the various imaginary lines that help us to identify the different aspects of the world with the help of globe • Know the concept of latitudes and longitudes • Explore the motion of Earth along with its inclination on its axis • Familiarise the time zone system

INTRODUCTION Globe is a three-dimensional, spherical, scale model of Earth. It is derived from the Latin word globus, which means mass or sphere. There are different kinds of globes like celestial globe, which represents the positions of stars in the sky. Geography is the science of location and maps. The location is presented relatively and this process is called relative location. In geography, we use two basic methods to locate a place; they are latitudes and longitudes and these are the imaginary lines on Earth.

Latitudes Imaginary lines parallel to the equator is called latitudes. Equator is also a latitude that divides the earth into two equal parts: northern part and southern part. The value of equator is 0°. The earth is divided from 0 to 90° latitude. The 23½° latitude is also known as Tropic of Cancer that falls in the northern part and when the same degree falls in the southern part, it is known as Tropic of Capricorn; however, 66½° northern latitude is called Arctic circle and 66½° southern latitude is called Antarctic circle. Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn denote the boundaries of areas where the sun’s rays fall directly.

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162 | Chapter 3 Globe

80°N

North Pole

60°N 40°N 20°N

Equ

ato

20°S

Figure 3.1 Latitudes

Longitudes The longitudes are divided into two parts by prime meridian (denoted by 0° longitude): eastern and western. It passes through Greenwich near London. The earth is divided from 0° to 360° longitudes. All longitudes meet at the northern and southern poles. Longitudes join at all the places of that particular longitude. The longitude 180° is International Date Line, which is not a straight line, and it is deliberately drawn in a zig-zag manner to save the country from partition, which passes through Pacific Ocean. The date of the western part of countries of this line is ahead of the eastern part of countries. This is the reason for a person who travels from east to west will

North Pole 90O N 75O N

Gre

enw

Tropic

30O N of

O 60 E

45O E

45O N

O 75 E

60O N

30O W

15 OW

0 OW

of Longitude Line

15 O W

45 O 30 O W W

ich

de ttiitu

cer

Can

15O N Equator(0O)

Tropic

15O S of 30O S

Capricro

45O S

Figure 3.2 Meridians

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Unit II Geography | 163 lose one day; while a person who travels from west to east will gain one day. The value of one longitude is 4 min; therefore, towards east, the time increases, and towards west, it decreases.

MOTIONS OF THE EARTH Earth has two motions: one on its axis and the other around the sun. The first motion on its axis is called daily rotation, while the second one around the sun is called yearly motion. Because of the motion on its axis, Earth rotates from west to east; further, it takes 24 h to complete the rotation, and therefore, there are days and nights. Along with the motion on its axis, it also rotates around the sun; this takes 365.25 days and this is the reason we have a leap year after every fourth year. Further, 0.25 days represent one quarter. When we combine four quarters after every fourth year, Spring N.P. Equinox (21 March) S.P.

Autumn

Summer in the Northern Hemisphere Summer Solstice (21 June)

Winter Solstice (22 December)

SUN

Winter in the Southern Hemisphere

Winter in the Northern Hemisphere

Autumn

Summer in the Southern Hemisphere

Equinox (23 September) Spring

Figure 3.3 Direction of Revolution of Earth add one day extra in February, and therefore, February has 29 days in a leap year. This motion also causes change in the season. Since the axis on which Earth rotates is oval in shape, the distance of Earth from Sun is different on different times of the year.

EARTH’S INCLINATION ON ITS AXIS Earth is inclined at 23½° on its axis, and because of this feature, the amount of sun’s rays will differ on place and time. When sun’s rays fall directly, we feel warm and when they fall askew, we feel cold. Summarily, the seasonal change is felt due to the inclination and yearly rotation of Earth. The abovementioned motion of Earth creates the following four situations: 1. Karka Sankranti: On 21 June, sun’s rays fall directly on Tropic of Cancer, and this day is the longest day in Northern hemisphere.

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164 | Chapter 3 Globe 2. Makar Sankranti: On 22 December, sun’s rays fall directly on Tropic of Capricorn and this day is the longest day in Southern hemisphere. 3. Equinox: On this day, the sun’s rays fall directly on Mediterranean, and therefore, days and nights are equal all over the world. 4. Autumn Equinox and Vernal Equinox: On 23 September and 21 March, the days and nights are equal all over the world. From 23 September to 21 March, the sun’s rays fall more on Southern hemisphere, and therefore, it remains day for six consecutive months. From 21 March to 23 September, the sun’s rays fall more on Northern hemisphere, and therefore, it remains days for six consecutive months.

Solar Eclipse When the moon comes between the Earth and the sun, it creates a situation that blocks the sun’s rays and casting its shadow on Earth and this is called solar eclipse. It always happens only during new moon phase. The eclipse in which some of the part of the sun is covered by the moon is called partial solar eclipse.

Lunar Eclipse When Earth comes between the moon and the sun and blocking the sun’s rays from reaching the moon, it creates a situation called lunar eclipse. It always happens in full Moon; however, The vertical line from the earth’s orbital plane North Pole 23½°

Tro Ca pic of nce r Eq

uat

or 66½°

Tro p

ic o

apr

The plane of the earth’s orbit

ico

South Pole

Figure 3.4

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Unit II Geography | 165 this situation does not happen regularly because there is 5° difference in orbit path of Earth and moon. In a year, a maximum of three lunar eclipses, either full or partial, can happen.

HEAT ZONES OF THE EARTH In many parts, every sphere of the earth has been divided on the basis of temperature, which is called zone. These zones are as follows: 1. Tropical zone: 30° North and South of equator is considered as tropical zone. The sun falls on head twice in a year. This part of the earth is always hot. 2. Sub-tropical zone: From 30° to 45° of North and South of equator is taken as sub-tropical zone. In a year, for few months, the temperature is high, while for few months, it is low. 3. Temperate zone: This zone falls at 45°–66° northern and southern latitude. The sun never falls on head in this zone, and hence, the climate is always cool. 4. Polar zone: This zone falls at 66°–90° latitude zone, where the temperature is always very low. It causes the poles to freeze.

North Pole Frigid Zone

66½°N

A rc t i c C i rc l e North T empera te Zone Tropic o f Cancer

23½°N

Torrid Zo n

Equator Tropic o f

0°

Capricorn

South

Tempe rate Zo ne Antarctic Circl e

23½°S

Frigid Zone South Pole

66½°S

Figure 3.5 Heat zones of Earth

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166 | Chapter 3 Globe No

uth

Axi s

Circle of illumination

rth

Equ

ato

Figure 3.6 Day and Night

TIME ZONE AND STANDARD TIME “I was in Hawaii on eight of November, when I called at my home in India my mom said it is 7th November. I was surprised.” The abovementioned statement talks about the difference of time zones across the world. It is not very easy to understand the concept of time zone. It is very interesting to know that the very idea of standard time zone comes in existence because of the development of transportation system, which has moved from land transport to air transport. People started travelling more and world has become smaller. An international conference was held in Washington, DC, in 1884 to standardise the time around the world. Further, the standard time zone is divided into 24 zones. Greenwich Mean Time is the most well-known time zone. Moreover, the other time zones are all based on this mean time as it has been accepted as standard time zone. It was done because there was a need for a prime meridian location to manage navigation, international trade, and so on. Therefore, Greenwich Meridian has become a base line for the time across the world. The world is divided into 24 time zones. Every zone has 15°. Every degree is equal to 4 min and the difference of two time zones is 1 h. Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is the standard time used in defining time at various zones; local time within a time zone is defined as a difference from the UTC. The difference is represented either UTC− or UTC+ along with number of hours and minutes.

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Meridian of Greenwich

P a c i fi c

Indian Ocean

Number of hours 1

Greenwich +5 +6

International date line

Unit II Geography | 167

Atlantic Ocean

Number of hours of greenwich +7

+10

+11

+12

–11

–10

–9

Figure 3.7 Time zone

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ Globe is a three-dimensional, spherical, scale model of Earth. ➨ The celestial globe represents the positions of the stars in the sky. ➨ The location in geography is presented relatively and this process is called relative location. ➨ In geography, we use two basic methods to locate a place; they are latitudes and longitudes, which are the imaginary lines on Earth. ➨ Imaginary lines are parallel to equator and are called latitudes. ➨ Equator is also a latitude that divides the Earth into two parts and these are northern part and southern part. ➨ Value of equator is 0°. ➨ The longitudes is divided into two parts: eastern and western by prime meridian (denoted by 0° longitude). ➨ Earth is divided from 0° to 360° longitudes. ➨ The value of one longitude is 4 min; towards east, it increases, while towards west, it decreases. ➨ Earth has two motions: one on its axis and the other round the Sun. ➨ Earth is inclined at 23½° on its axis; due to this feature, the amount of sun’s rays will differ on place and time. ➨ Every sphere of the earth has been divided on the basis of temperature, which is called zone.

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168 | Chapter 3 Globe ➨ Greenwich Mean Time is the most well-known time zone. Moreover, the other time zones are all based on this mean time as it has been accepted as the standard time zone. ➨ The world is divided into 24 time zones. Every zone has 15°. Every degree is equal to 4 min and the difference between two time zones is 1 h.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1. What is a globe? 2. What do you understand by latitudes? Give examples of some important latitude lines. 3. What do you understand by longitudes? How it divides world in different time zones? 4. Describe the yearly and monthly motion of Earth. 5. Explain the heat zones of Earth.

6. What is the difference between solar eclipse and lunar eclipse? 7. Discuss about Earth’s inclination on its axis. 8. Explain in one line: (a) Polar zone (b) Sub-tropical zone (c) Temperate zone (d) Tropical zone

Objective Questions 1. The region, where sun rays fall directly. (a) Equator (b) Tropic of Cancer (c) Tropic of Capricorn (d) 15° Southern sphere 2. Which longitude line is called International Date Line? (a) 180° (b) 90° (c) 23½° (d) 90½° 3. What is Arctic Circle? (a) 66½ northern latitude (b) 66½ southern latitude (c) 23½ northern latitude (d) 23½ southern latitude 4. What is Antarctic Circle? (a) 66½ northern latitude (b) 66½ southern latitude (c) 23½ northern latitude (d) 23½ southern latitude

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5. Which of the following denotes zero latitude? (a) Equator (b) Tropic of Capricorn (c) Tropic of Cancer (d) Greenwich line 6. Imaginary lines that are parallel to equator is called: (a) Latitude (b) Longitude (c) International Date Line (d) None of these 7. Which of the following divides Earth into two parts: east and west? (a) Greenwich line (b) Equator (c) Tropic of Capricorn (d) None of these 8. The 23½° northern latitude is called: (a) Tropic of Cancer (b) Tropic of Capricorn

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Unit II Geography | 169 (c) Equator (d) None of these 9. The 23½° southern latitude is called: (a) Tropic of Capricorn (b) Tropic of Cancer (c) Equator (d) None of these 10. Which one of the following explains ‘Karka Sankranti’? (a) Longest day in Northern hemisphere (b) Shortest day in Northern hemisphere (c) Longest day in Southern hemisphere (d) Shortest day in Southern hemisphere 11. Which one of the following day is known as Makar Sankranti? (a) Longest day in Southern hemisphere (b) Longest day in Northern hemisphere (c) Shortest day in a year (d) Longest day of the year 12. Which of the following is the best explanation of the word equinox? (a) The days and nights are equal all over the world (b) Long days and short nights (c) Long nights and short days (d) None of these 13. When the moon comes between the earth and the sun, it is called: (a) Solar eclipse (b) Partial solar eclipse (c) Lunar eclipse (d) Moon eclipse 14. When Earth comes between the moon and the sun, it is called (a) Solar eclipse (b) Lunar eclipse

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(c) Partial solar eclipse (d) None of these 15. The world is divided into __________ time zones. (a) 24 (b) 18 (c) 12 (d) 8 16. Every time zone covers (a) 15° and 60 min (b) 20° and 45 min (c) 10° and 15 min (d) 45° and 10 min 17. What is the difference between two time zones? (a) One hour (b) Half an hour (c) 24 hours (d) 12 hours 18. The place Greenwich is popularly known for: (a) International Date Line (b) International climate line (c) England date line (d) None of these 19. The time value of one longitude is (a) 4 min (b) 5 min (c) 30 min (d) 60 min 20. When some part of sun is covered by the moon, it is known as: (a) Partial solar eclipse (b) Lunar eclipse (c) Solar eclipse (d) Moon eclipse

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CHAPTER

Environment

LEARNING OBjECTIvES • • • •

Understand the concept of environment and atmosphere Explore the composition and various layers of atmosphere Engage with the process of atmospheric circulation Explore about human environment, manmade environment, and human–environment interaction

INTRODUCTION Air is an essential part of our life. We have to do many activities such as eat and drink to survive. Similarly, we breathe every second to live, and for it, air is very important. It is possible to survive few days without food, but not without breathing. To breathe, air is needed, and therefore, we need to understand atmosphere and climate in detail. Atmosphere is the mixture of gases. This mixture consists of life-giving gases such as oxygen (for humans and animals) and carbon dioxide (for plants). For exploring these gases and atmosphere, we have to understand the concept of environment.

ENvIRONMENT We are surrounded by many objects such as living and non-living things, constructions, as well as natural components. These constitute the environment. Simply, we can say that environment is a combination of natural and man-made phenomenon. There are many components of environment and we can majorly categorise them into three parts: natural, manmade, and humans. Natural environment is divided into four major parts: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Atmosphere Hydrosphere Lithosphere Biosphere

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Unit II Geography | 171

Atmosphere The term atmosphere emerged from two Greek words atmos, which means vapour, and spharia (sphere). Atmosphere can be understood as a layer of gases surrounding our planet. The major gases available in our atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. Atmosphere functions as a shield and protects and saves us from ultraviolet rays, cosmic rays, and so on that are coming from the solar system. It is important to know that the available condition of our atmosphere was not always like this; rather, it took millions of years to reach this state.

Atmosphere composition Gases, water vapour, and dust particles are constituents of atmosphere. Table 4.1 shows various gases of atmosphere. Table 4.1 Gases and their volume percentage in atmosphere Constituent

Percentage by volume

Nitrogen

78.08

Oxygen

20.95

Argon

0.93

Carbon dioxide

0.036

Neon

0.002

Helium

0.0005

Krypton

0.001

Xenon

0.00009

Hydrogen

0.00005

It is important to know that the proportion of gases changes in the higher layer of the atmosphere. Further, carbon dioxide and water vapour can be found only up to 90 km from the earth’s surface. Carbon dioxide is a very important gas in atmosphere because it is transparent to the incoming solar radiation. It is also important for greenhouse effect. It is important to note that other gases other than carbon dioxide are constant but carbon dioxide has increased in the last few decades. Furthermore, increase in carbon dioxide will result in increase in temperature. The atmosphere has ozone layer located between 10 km and 50 km above the earth’s surface, which filters ultraviolet rays coming from the sun. Atmosphere also has water vapour that decreases as the altitude increases. It can be around 4% in the warm tropics and 1% in cold areas and polar areas. It is important to know that water vapour decreases from equator towards the poles. It also absorbs parts of the insolation from the sun and preserves the earth from radiation heat. Therefore, it acts like a blanket, thereby allowing

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172 | Chapter 4 Environment the earth neither to become too cold nor too hot. Water vapour also contributes to the stability and instability in the air (Fundamentals of Physical Geography, Class XI, NCERT, 2005, pp. 77). Along with gases and water vapour, atmosphere has various kinds of solid particles such as dust particles. These dust particles are located in the lower layer of the atmosphere. Now, we are aware that our earth is surrounded by air and we inhale and exhale air for our survival. It is important to know that sun is the source of energy for earth. Whatever energy the earth receives from sun, it reflects back, and therefore, earth gets neither too hot nor too cold, but the heat received by different parts of the earth varies. The varied heat also influences the pressure in the atmosphere, and therefore, the temperature also gets varied. The energy coming towards the earth is known as incoming solar radiation and also known as insolation. Only a very small amount of energy reaches the earth in actual sense. The earth receives 1.94 calories/cm2/min at the upper layer of its atmosphere. The amount and the intensity of insolation vary during the day in a season and in a year. The factors that cause these variations in insolation are as follows: 1. The rotation of earth on its axis 2. The angle of inclination of the sun’s rays 3. The length of the day 4. The transparency of the atmosphere 5. The configuration of land in terms of its aspect However, the last two factors have less influence (Fundamentals of Physical Geography, Class XI, NCERT, 2005, pp. 79). Heat is created when insolation, atmosphere, and surface of the earth interact with each other. It is measured in temperature. There are various factors that influence the temperature on earth such as latitude of any place (latitude depends upon the insolation), altitude of a place, distance from the sea, mass of the air and ocean current, and so on.

Structure of atmosphere There are various layers that constitute earth’s atmosphere. All these layers are different from each other in various ways, that is, temperature, composition, pressure, and so on. The earth’s atmosphere has five layers: troposphere, stratosphere, ozonosphere, ionosphere, and exosphere (Figure 4.1).

Troposphere The lowest layer of the atmosphere is known as troposphere. All kinds of weather activities and actions happen in troposphere. The troposphere consists of aerosols and water vapour. The length of the sphere varies from various locations; for example, at tropics, its length is 20 km; at midlatitude, its length is 17 km, and at polar region, its length is 7 km. Tropopause is the layer that

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Unit II Geography | 173 can be seen as border of troposphere, which distinguishes it from stratosphere. It is important to know that the temperature of tropopause does not change at various heights. Biosphere: Approximately from 5 km below sea level to 10 km above sea level. The zone occupied by organisms.

Atmosphere: Thermosphere 80–120 km above sea level Mesosphere 50–80 km above sea level Stratosphere 15–50 km above sea level Troposphere 0–15 km above sea level

Crust (Oceanic is up to 10 km thick, Continental is up to 40 km thick; main elements oxygen 45% silicon 27%)

Outer core (2000 km thick, semi-soild)

Core (1300 km radius, solid)

Figure 4.1 Layers of atmosphere

Stratosphere The second layer of earth’s atmosphere is stratosphere. The location of this sphere is just above the troposphere. This sphere represents 20% of the total mass of atmosphere. We can find changes, differences, and variations in temperature in this sphere. The coldest layer will be near to the earth, whereas the warmer layer will be farther from earth. It is important to know that high temperature at higher altitude is caused by ultraviolet rays. There is variation in the border of this layer at various places: at equator, it is at 8 km, whereas it is 10–13 km to 50 km between the poles and the equator, and at poles, it is at 8 km. Temperature also varies as per the season, altitudes, and poles.

Ozonosphere The layer that is 32–60 km away from earth’s surface is ozonosphere. It consists of a layer of ozone gas that absorbs the ultraviolet rays of sun and protects the earth from it. It is called as the

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174 | Chapter 4 Environment safety shield of the earth. With increase in altitude, the temperature increases and 5°C increases within 1 km of altitude. It is important to note that refrigerators and air conditioners emit chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), which contains active chlorine. CFC depletes the ozone layer, allowing the UV rays to reach the earth. Hence, to protect the ozone layer, CFC-emitting refrigerators and air conditioners are banned.

Ionosphere This layer is located between 60 km and 1000 km, and therefore, it is known as upper atmospheric region of the atmosphere. It is composed of thermosphere, mesosphere, and exosphere. It also develops the inner side or edge of magnetosphere. It contributes in radio waves around the earth?.

Exosphere It ranges from 640 km and above from the earth’s surface. Its upper level is not determined. Hydrogen and helium are the gases found mainly in exosphere.

Atmospherics circulation We have discussed earlier that unequal distribution of temperature prevails on earth. We also know that air expands when gets heated and compresses when gets cooled. This causes variations in the atmospheric pressure, and finally, air moves from high pressure to low pressure area. We already know that air in its horizontal motion is called wind. Atmospheric pressure also determines the expansion and compression of air. The wind redistributes the heat and moisture across the planet, and thereby maintaining a constant temperature for the planet as a whole. The vertical rising of moist air cools it down to form clouds and brings precipitation. This chapter has been devoted to explain the causes of pressure differences, the forces that control the atmospheric circulation, the turbulent pattern of wind, the formation of air masses, the disturbed weather when air masses interact with each other, and the phenomenon of violent tropical storms (Fundamentals of Physical Geography, Class XI, NCERT, 2005, pp. 88).

Hydrosphere The domain of earth that is related to water is called hydrosphere. It consists mainly of water bodies under and above the earth such as seas, oceans, lakes, rivers, glaciers, and ground water. In subsequent chapters, hydrosphere has been discussed in detail.

Lithosphere The solid part of the upper crust of the earth is called lithosphere. The major constructors of this crust are rocks, which are deposits of minerals. The upper hard and solid crust of earth is made

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Unit II Geography | 175 of light elements. The interior rocks of earth are made of heavy elements. The inner formation of earth can be understood by dividing it into three major parts, that is, crust, mantle, and core (Figure 4.2). In subsequent chapters, lithosphere has been discussed in detail.

Figure 4.2 Domains of environment

Biosphere The part of earth that consists of living and non-living things is called biosphere. It can be considered as the sum of all ecosystems of a particular place. It is mainly the zone on earth that consists of life. It is the interaction of living and non-living beings with their environment and other parts of earth such as lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. Ecosystem can be defined as the relationship of living communities with that of non-living things and environmental components such as air, water, soils, and minerals that is regulated by a system. Both the abiotic and biotic components play important role in the functioning of ecosystem. These regulations and their nature can differ from one part of the world to other; for example, forests have a different nature of ecosystem, and the ocean has different kind of ecosystem called marine or aquatic ecosystem. The main source of energy in any ecosystem is the sun. In oceans, the phytoplankton absorbs energy from the sun and process it through a series of chemical reactions and that energy is distributed accordingly to other organisms of the ocean. The trees and plants obtain energy from the sun and process it through photosynthesis and produce glucose that is eaten by other living beings. For example, deer eats the grass and deer is eaten by the tiger; thus, the energy of the sun flows through the grass to deer and from deer to the tiger. Therefore, the complex cycle of energy flow takes place in the ecosystem.

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176 | Chapter 4 Environment There are some internal and external factors that influence and control the ecosystems. We can consider time, climate, soil types, and topography as the external factors that influence the functioning of an ecosystem and determine the way it would be functioning without being influenced by it. Internal factors are controlled by its factors such as decomposition, root competition, or shading. Other internal factors include disturbance, succession, and the types of species present in a particular ecosystem.

Man-made environment All the things that we see around us and the things that are made by humans comprise the manmade environment. There is a constant interaction of humans from their environment in which they live. Whatever we see around us today was not there before and what we see today may not be there tomorrow. Humans have this tendency to make their environment conducive and adaptable to their needs. In this process, the environment keeps changing. All the constructions that we observe around are the product of these interactions such as buildings, bridges, roads, poles, and so on. Humans need to settle themselves, and therefore, they made buildings and houses; they need to travel from one place to another, and for that, they need roads, railways, bridges, and so on. In subsequent chapters, this part would be discussed in detail.

Human environment Humans are emotional and social beings. They live in communities and societies. In their interactions, they adapt to some kind of regulations, and in due course, the institutions such as families, religions, and educational institutions were formed. These institutions and their activities are the integral part of human beings that are also the integral part of human environment. Human environment varies from place to place and from one society to another based on their rules, religions, and beliefs. Along with human environment, it is also important to understand the term human–environment interaction. Human–environment interaction is an important theme of study in Geography, which is related to various kinds of relationships. These relationships can be both negative and positive with the environment around us. Human–environment interaction studies talk about how one adapts with the environment and how a man changes the environment as per his needs. People also generate responses towards the environment they live in. It is important to note that the human–environment interaction is not a field of study where one talks about individuals; rather, it explores and reveals the relationships of various groups and their cultures. Therefore, this is a study about that the relationship between social system evolved by human beings and comprehensive ecosystems. All these interactions can be located and understood with reference to climate change. Geography scientists strongly believe that human activities have contributed to the change in environment.

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Unit II Geography | 177

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ Air is an essential part of our life. We have to do many activities such as eat and drink to survive. Similarly, we breathe every second to live, and for it, air is very important. ➨ Atmosphere is the mixture of gases. This mixture consists of life-giving gases such as oxygen (for humans and animals) and carbon dioxide (for plants). ➨ We are surrounded by many objects such as living and non-living things, constructions, as well as natural components. These constitute the environment. Simply, we can say that environment is a combination of natural and man-made phenomenon. ➨ Atmosphere can be understood as a layer of gases surrounding our planet. ➨ The major gases available in our atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. ➨ Gases, water vapour, and dust particles are constituents of atmosphere. ➨ The atmosphere has ozone layer located between 10 km and 50 km above the earth’s surface, which filters ultraviolet rays coming from the sun. ➨ Carbon dioxide and water vapour can be found only up to 90 km from the earth’s surface. ➨ Atmosphere also has water vapour that decreases as the altitude increases. ➨ It is important to know that sun is the source of energy for earth. Whatever energy the earth receives from sun, it reflects back, and therefore, earth gets neither too hot nor too cold, but the heat received by different parts of the earth varies. ➨ The energy coming towards the earth is known as incoming solar radiation and also known as insolation. ➨ The earth’s atmosphere has five layers, namely troposphere, stratosphere, ozonosphere, ionosphere, and exosphere. ➨ Atmospheric pressure also determines the expansion and compression of air. ➨ All the things that we see around us and the things that are made by humans comprise the man-made environment. ➨ Human–environment interaction is an important theme of study in Geography, which is related to various kinds of relationships.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1. What is environment? 2. What is ecosystem? 3. Explain atmosphere with its different layers. 4. What is hydrosphere? 5. What is the difference between human-made environment and human environment?

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6. What is lithosphere? 7. Discus about the human–environment interaction.

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178 | Chapter 4 Environment

Objective Questions 1. Which one of the following statement better explains the environment? (a) Combination of natural and manmade phenomenon (b) Place where only living things exists (c) Only natural phenomenon (d) None of these

7. Which layer of atmosphere absorbs the

2. Natural environment can divide into fol-

atmosphere? (a) Layer of gases surrounding a planet (b) Combination of aquatic ecosystem and terrestrial ecosystem (c) Relationship of different living components (d) None of these

lowing parts (a) atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. (b) crust, mental, and core. (c) troposphere, stratosphere, and ozonosphere. (d) None of these 3. Which one of the following is the upper part of the atmosphere? (a) Ionosphere (b) Troposphere (c) Stratosphere (d) Ozonosphere 4. Troposphere is (a) the lowest portion of atmosphere. (b) middle portion of atmosphere. (c) upper portion of atmosphere. (d) None of these 5. Which one of the following is the major characteristic of the stratosphere? (a) It has variations in temperature. (b) It protects earth from ultraviolet rays. (c) It is a very cold layer. (d) None of these 6. What is the length of ozonosphere? (a) 32 to 60 km (b) 60 to 80 km (c) 20 to 32 km (d) 50 to 90 km

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ultraviolet rays of sun? (a) Ozonosphere (b) Stratosphere (c) Troposphere (d) Ionosphere

8. Which is the appropriate explanation of

9. Which is the major gas of atmosphere? (a) (b) (c) (d)

Nitrogen Helium Hydrogen Oxygen

10. Which layer of atmosphere plays very important role in radio propagation? (a) Ionosphere (b) Stratosphere (c) Troposphere (d) Ozonosphere 11. Which of the following statement best explains hydrosphere? (a) Domain of earth related to water (b) Domain of earth related to air (c) Domain of earth related to land (d) None of these 12. The ecosystem of ocean is called: (a) Aquatic ecosystem (b) Terrestrial ecosystem (c) Microbial ecosystem (d) None of these

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Unit II Geography | 179 13. Which of the following is the appropriate explanation of lithosphere? (a) Solid upper crust of earth (b) Domain of water (c) Solid upper crust of metal (d) Layer between stratosphere and troposphere 14. Which of the following is the best explanation for biosphere? (a) Sum of all ecosystems (b) Sum of all layers of atmosphere (c) Sphere of living beings (d) None of these

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15. What is ecosystem? (a) Relationship of biotic and abiotic components (b) Relationship of living things (c) Relationships of a biotic component (d) None of these 16. Human environment is the place where (a) humans interact with different communities and societies. (b) humans interact with natural phenomenon. (c) humans interact with ecosystem. (d) humans interact with aquatic ecosystem.

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CHAPTER

Air

LEARNING OBjECTIVES • • • •

Know about the gases composition in atmosphere and the structure of atmosphere Understand about weather and climate Explore and understand about air, air pressure, and various kinds of winds Engage with the understanding of various kinds of jet streams along with humidity

STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE The atmosphere is made up of various layers and these layers exist because of significant changes happened in temperature. We must know that gravity plays a major role in this formation, because it pulls the air towards the earth which is known as air pressure. The layers constitute atmosphere are discussed below. 1. Troposphere: The expansion of this layer is a little above the surface of the earth. The reason behind the life on the earth is due to the gases present in this layer. The height of troposphere is 8 km on planes and 16 km on the equator. The height of troposphere varies according to the seasons. It is high in summers and low in winters. All the climate-related process occurs in this layer, such as formation of clouds, rain, storm, and so on. As we go upwards in this layer, the temperature turns low. It has the highest temperature in equator area and lowest temperature in the Polar Regions. 2. Stratosphere: It is the second layer of atmosphere that is situated above the troposphere. The temperature is evenly distributed in this layer. It is free from surface-related temperature effects and also from climate activities, which makes it suitable for aeroplanes. The expansion of this layer is 18 km to 32 km. Sometimes, a special type of clouds is constructed in this layer called mother-of-pearl clouds. Furthermore, this layer is very thick on Polar Regions and very thin at the equator. 3. Ozonosphere: Most of the ozone gas of atmosphere is found in this layer, and it absorbs the ultraviolet rays of the sun. The expansion of this layer is 32 km to 60 km. The unique characteristic of this layer is that the temperature increases with an increase in altitude. In this layer, the temperature raises at a rate of 5°C per kilometre.

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Unit II Geography | 181 4. Ionosphere: The height of ionosphere is 60 km to 640 km. We can divide this sphere into many layers. The lowest layer of this sphere is called D-layer that reflects long radio waves. Other layers such as E-1, E-2, F-1, and F-2 reflect short radio waves. 5. Exosphere: This is the last and the highest sphere of atmosphere. It has no limited boundary. Its approximate expansion is 640 km. Helium and hydrogen are dominant gases of this sphere. Composition of gases of the Atmosphere Important gases of the atmosphere are as follows:

Nitrogen: 78.8% Oxygen: 20.95% ■ Argon: 0.93% ■ Carbon dioxide: 0.036% ■ Helium: 0.0005% ■ Ozone: 0.0000001% ■ ■

WEATHER AND CLIMATE Weather is the state of atmospheric conditions at a specific time and location. The temperature, humidity, and air are the basic determinants of weather. This is the reason when any one of the these determinants change, it does impact the weather. Climate is the long-term weather condition of a particular place. It is based on the average condition of about 50 to 100 years of weather conditions. The climate of a place is unchangeable unless there is a complete change in temperature, rain, and humidity. By temperature, we mean the temperature of lower layer of the atmosphere. This layer is connected to surface and takes heat from the surface. Atmospheric temperature is the result of the heat and energy absorbed by the atmosphere from the sun.

DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE Only 1/2000 crore portion of heat reaches the earth. The surface of earth receives heat from the rays that is left after Albedo, the loss of solar energy due to reflection, and other obstacles of solar and atmospheric structure; further, a considerable amount of energy will not even reach the surface of the earth. The atmosphere of the earth does not become warm due to the direct fall of sun’s rays but by the short waves that is absorbed and reached to the earth. The surface reflects the solar heat by long waves and it is absorbed by the atmosphere. The air becomes hot due to the contact of surface; this is reason that the more we go upward, the less the temperature of air would be. The main factors that determine the temperature of any place are latitudes, height, distribution of water and land, ocean streams, distance from sea, and nature of surface like the

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182 | Chapter 5 Air snow-covered surface reflects 90% of solar heat. The water bodies absorbed a large quantity of solar heat. The amount of energy required to heat 1°C of 1 g of any object is called specific heat. The land has less specific heat capacity than water and this is the reason for the temperature of ocean to be relatively constant. The difference of temperature increases with the distance from oceans or seas. On the local basis, the ocean streams and air have impact on the temperature. The coastal areas with warm ocean streams are relatively warmer than the other areas of those longitudes. Generally, the warm streams are found on the eastern coasts of continents, while cold streams are found on the western parts. The earth is divided into three parts on the basis of temperature. The temperature at the tropical area remains high as the sun’s rays fall directly. Temperate zone is an area where the temperature remains normal and cold tropical zone is an area where the temperature remains very low and snow covered because the sun’s rays fall askew. In a fixed time span, the difference of the highest and the lowest temperature is called atmospheric temperature range. The difference of the highest daily and the lowest daily temperature is called daily temperature range. The average of the highest and the lowest temperature of months is called annual temperature range. The temperature range is determined by the longitudes and landscapes.

AIR PRESSURE The air has its own weight. When the volume of air above a specific part of surface put some pressure on surface vertically that is called air pressure. The air pressure is measured by the weight or force on per unit area by air. It is measured in Millibar and it is equal to 100 dyne/cm2. The instrument that is used in measuring the air pressure is called Barometer.

Distribution of Air Pressure On surface, there is a reciprocal relationship between the atmospheric pressure and the temperature. However, with an increase in height or altitude, the air pressure decreases like temperature. Because of unequal distribution of temperature on the surface, the air pressure also varies. The distribution of air pressure is influenced by different dynamic factors of earth along with temperature factor. Some of the important factors that influence the air pressure are temperature, height from the sea level, motion of air, and atmospheric humidity.

Air Pressure and Wind The flow of air in a particular direction is called wind. The names of winds are decided by the direction of flow; for example, the flow of air from east to west would be called as western wind, while the flow of air from west to east would be called the eastern wind. The main function of wind is to minimise the difference of air pressure at different locations. The study of difference of air pressure is conducted on the basis of air proficiency, that is, the falling of air pressure on per unit horizontal distance.

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Unit II Geography | 183

Forces Affecting the Direction of Wind We know that the atmospheric pressure influences the air motion. This motion of air is known as wind. It is also important to know that wind flows from high pressure to low pressure. Earth also influences the motion and flow of wind. Coriolis force is exerted by the rotation of earth. Therefore, three forces namely pressure gradient force, the frictional force, and the Coriolis force collectively affect the horizontal wind near the earth. A force is produced due to the difference in atmospheric pressure. The pressure gradient force is the rate of change of pressure with respect to distance. The strength of the pressure gradient depends upon the position of isobars. Closeness of isobar makes it pressure giant strong and difference make it weak. Frictional Force affects the speed of the wind. This force is minimal at the surface of the sea. Coriolis force is the force that is created due to the earth’s rotation on its axis. It also directs the wind to move towards right and left direction. At right direction, it is diverted towards north hemisphere and at the left direction, it is diverted to the south hemisphere. These diversions become high when the velocity of wind is high. It is also important to know that the Coriolis force is directly proportional to the angle of latitude.

Seasonal Wind The pattern of wind circulation is modified in different seasons due to the shifting of regions of maximum temperature, pressure, and wind belts. The most pronounced effect of such a shift is noticed in the monsoons especially over Southeast Asia (Fundamentals of Physical Geography, Class XI, NCERT, 2005, pp. 92). There are other local deviations, which are discussed further in the following sections.

Local Wind Local or regional winds are created due to the differences in the heating and cooling of the earth’s surface.

Sea and Land Wind We know that land and sea absorb the heat in a different way. In day, land becomes warm faster than the sea. Therefore, in the case of the land, the air raises giving rise to a low pressure area. However, sea works in opposite manner as it is relatively cool, and therefore, the pressure over sea is high. The wind that moves from the sea to the land is called sea breeze and the wind that moves from the land to the sea is called land breeze. It is important to know that in night, the situation becomes completely opposite; in night, the land gets cooler faster than the sea.

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184 | Chapter 5 Air

Valley and Mountain Winds In mountainous region, during the day, the slopes get heated up and air moves upslope and to fill the resulting gap, the air from the valley blows up the valley. The wind is known as the valley breeze. During the night, the slopes get cooled and the dense air descends into the valley as the mountain wind. The cool air of the high plateaus and ice fields draining into the valley is called leeward side of the mountain ranges. The moisture in these winds while crossing the mountain ranges condense and precipitate; when it descends down the leeward side of the slope, the dry air gets warmed up by the adiabatic process. This dry air may melt the snow in short time (Fundamentals of Physical Geography, Class XI, NCERT, 2005, pp. 93).

Land

Land Sea

Sea Sea breeze

Land breeze

Figure 5.1 Cause of sea and land breeze

Air Masses When air passes through similar kinds of area or field for longer time, it takes or obtains some characteristics of the area. Air masses can be understood as a distinctive feature with humidity and temperature. Air masses can be categorised as per the source regions and there are five categories: 1. Warm tropical and subtropical oceans. 2. The subtropical hot deserts. 3. The relatively cold high latitude oceans. 4. The very cold snow covered continents in high latitudes. 5. Permanently ice covered continents in Arctic and Antarctica.

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Polar high pressure

Temperate low pressure Westerly

Variables

Sub-tropical high pressures N.E.

Trades Equatorial low pressure

S.E.

Trades

Sub-tropical high pressure Brave west winds Temperate low pressures

Polar high pressure

Figure 5.2 Pressure belts

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Unit II Geography | 185 Table 5.1 Measure pressure and wind Pressure Measuring Instruments

Mercurial barometer Aneroid barometer Altimeter barometer Barograph Microbar meter Microbarovariograph

Wind Measurement Instruments

Wind vane or weather co*ck Anemometer

MONSOON The word Monsoon originated from Arabic word ‘Mousim’, which means seasonal wind or weather wind. Direction of this wind changes according to the weather. Although the impact of monsoon is seen significantly in Southern Asia; however, it is also felt in Northern America and Africa. According to the ancient ideology, monsoon is the result of difference of heating of water and land. In summer, when there is low pressure in South Asian landscape, oceans have high pressure that results into flowing of air from Indian Ocean towards the land. This wind has high concentration of humidity; this causes rain in the land and are called South-Eastern Monsoon or Summer Monsoon. In winter, there is high pressure on land than the ocean and that cause the wind to blow from the land to the ocean and it’s called North-Eastern or Winter Monsoon. This study of motion of monsoon is called Motion Theory.

Permanent Wind These winds are result of permanent surface and permanent pressure proficiency. The land winds and sea winds are its example. As we have discussed, because of different temperatures of land and sea, in day time, there is high temperature and low pressure on land that cause wind to blow from sea to land. These are called sea winds. At night, the temperature of land falls and pressure increases that cause the wind to blow from land to sea. The direction of wind changes in day and night. Jet streams move in the upper atmosphere. These are also known are fast moving winds. Tropopause is the area where jet streams flow. Jet streams move from west to east. The movement of jet streams varies in various ways. They stop, split, combine, and even moves in opposite direction of another jet. Polar jets are the strongest jet streams that move 9–12 km (above the sea). The weaker jet streams are the subtropical jets that move at 10–16 km. Both the hemispheres (northern and southern) have polar jet as well as subtropical jet streams. There are two factors that causes jet streams: 1. Heated atmosphere due to solar radiation. 2. Coriolis force’s action on moving masses. (We have already discussed that Coriolis force is created due to the rotation of earth on it axis.)

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186 | Chapter 5 Air

Humidity Humidity means the amount of water vapour in the air. At a specific temperature and in a specific air volume, a specific quantity of water vapour can be filled. This is called the saturation point of that air. At a specific temperature, in a specific volume of air, the ratio of the containing capacity of air of water vapour and its real presence is called relative humidity and denoted in percentage. Saturation point means 100% relative humidity. The relative humidity can be changed by changing the quantity of water vapour or temperature. The capacity of humidity of air is increased by an increase in the temperature because temperature increases the volume of air and also its capacity to contain water vapour.

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ The structure of atmosphere can be understood with reference to Troposphere, Ozonosphere, Stratosphere, Ionosphere, and Exosphere. ➨ Weather is the state of atmospheric conditions at a specific time and location. The temperature, humidity, and air are the basic determinants of weather. ➨ Climate is the long-term weather condition of a particular place. ➨ Only 1/2000 crore portion of heat reaches earth. ➨ The earth is divided into three parts on the basis of temperature. The temperature at the tropical area remains high as the sun’s rays fall directly. Temperate zone is an area where the temperature remains normal and cold tropical zone is an area where the temperature remains very low and snow covered because the sun’s rays fall askew. ➨ The volume of air above a specific part of the surface put some pressure on surface vertically that is called Air Pressure. ➨ However, with an increase in height or altitude, the air pressure decreases like temperature. Because of unequal distribution of temperature on the surface, the air pressure also varies. ➨ The flow of air in a particular direction is called wind. ➨ This motion of air is known as wind. It is also important to know that wind flows from high pressure to low pressure. ➨ The pressure gradient force is the rate of change of pressure with respect to distance. ➨ The Coriolis force is the force that is created due to the earth’s rotation on its axis. ➨ The pattern of wind circulation is modified in different seasons due to the shifting of regions of maximum heating, pressure, and wind belts. This is called seasonal wind. ➨ Local or regional winds are created due to the differences in the heating and cooling of the earth’s surface. ➨ In mountainous region, during the day, the slopes get heated up and air moves upslope and to fill the resulting gap, the air from the valley blows up the valley. This wind is known as the valley breeze. ➨ Jet streams move in the upper atmosphere. These are also known are fast moving winds. ➨ Humidity means the amount of water vapour in the air.

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Unit II Geography | 187

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1. Explain the distribution of air pressure. 2. What is wind? Explain its function. 3. What do you understand by humidity? 4. What do you understand by monsoon? What are the differences between summer monsoon and winter monsoon?

5. What is permanent wind? 6. What is temperature? Explain its distribution on earth. 7. What is the difference between weather and climate? Explain with appropriate examples.

Objective Questions 1. Which of the following is the explanation of weather? (a) Sum of atmospheric circ*mstances of a specific time and location (b) Sum of exospheric circ*mstances of a specific time and location (c) Distribution of temperature of a specific time and location (d) None of these 2. Which one of the following is an appropriate definition of climate? (a) Long-term weather condition of a particular place (b) Short-term atmospheric circ*mstances (c) Process occurs in stratosphere (d) None of these 3. What do you mean by temperature? (a) Temperature of lower layer of atmosphere (b) Temperature of ocean (c) Temperature of north and south poles (d) Heat of sun’s rays 4. In which layer of atmosphere, if we go 1 km high, the temperature rises to 5°C? (a) Ozonosphere (b) Ionosphere (c) Exosphere (d) Stratosphere

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5. Which layer of the atmosphere is ideal for jet aeroplanes? (a) Stratosphere (b) Ozonosphere (c) Troposphere (d) Exosphere 6. In which layer of atmosphere, climaterelated process occurs? (a) Troposphere (b) Stratosphere (c) Ozonosphere (d) Exosphere 7. Which of the following layer reflects long radio waves? (a) Ionosphere (b) Troposphere (c) Ozonosphere (d) Ionosphere 8. What do you understand by the term day temperature? (a) Difference of the highest and the lowest daily temperature (b) Sum of the highest and the lowest daily temperature (c) Difference of day and night temperature (d) None of these 9. What do you understand by the term annual temperature?

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188 | Chapter 5 Air (a) The average of highest and lowest temperature of 12 months (b) The sum of highest and lowest temperature of 12 months (c) The difference of highest and lowest temperature of 12 months (d) None of these 10. The instrument that is used in measuring air pressure is known as: (a) Barometer (b) Anemometer (c) Seismograph (d) None of these 11. Which of the following is the correct explanation of wind? (a) Flow of air in a particular direction (b) Flow of air from downwards to upwards direction (c) High pressure air of ocean (d) None of these 12. What is the main function of wind? (a) Minimising the difference of air pressure at different locations (b) Distribution of oxygen to hills (c) Controlling air pollution (d) Divert straight sun’s rays 13. What do you understand by monsoon? (a) Seasonal or weather winds (b) Jet winds (c) Polar winds (d) None of these 14. The study of motion of monsoon called _________ (a) Motion theory (b) Atmospheric chemistry (c) Climatology (d) None of these

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15. Which of the following measures wind? (a) Anemometer (b) Barometer (c) Hygrometer (d) None of these 16. Which of the following called the strongest jet streams? (a) Polar jets (b) Equator jets (c) Tropical jets (d) None of these 17. Which one of the following is the appropriate definition of humidity? (a) Quantity of water vapour in air (b) Quantity of air in water (c) Temperature of ocean (d) None of these 18. What do you understand by term winter monsoon? (a) When wind blows from land to ocean (b) When wind blows from ocean to land (c) When wind blows from poles to ocean (d) When wind blows from ocean to poles 19. What do you understand by the term summer monsoon? (a) When wind blows from ocean to land (b) When wind blows from land to ocean (c) When wind blows from ocean to poles (d) When wind blows from poles to ocean 20. What is the value of millibar? (a) 100 dyne/cm2 (b) 60 dyne/cm2 (c) 180 dyne/cm2 (d) 90 dyne/cm2

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CHAPTER

Water LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • • •

Understand the concept of water, its distribution, and sources of water (ground and surface) Be aware of various oceans across the world Explore the various kinds of waves and currents Know the lakes, rivers, and river systems in India

INTRODUCTION Water is very vital for the existence of any living being. Almost 71% of surface of the earth is covered by water.

DISTRIBUTION OF WATER BODIES The distribution of water bodies around the world is shown in Table 6.1. Table 6.1

Water bodies and their distribution

Water bodies

Distribution (%)

Oceans

97.3 (saline water)

Ice-caps

02.0

Groundwater

0.68

Freshwater lakes

0.009

Inland seas and salt lakes

0.009

Atmosphere

0.0019

Rivers

0.0001

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190 | Chapter 6 Water

Arctic Ocean Baltic Sea Mediterranean Sea

North Atlantic

North Pacific

North Pacific South China Sea

South Pacific

Indian Ocean

South Atlantic

South Pacific

Southern Ocean

Figure 6.1 World – major seas, lakes and rivers

OCEAN Oceans and their area are as follows: 1. Pacific Ocean – 1,662,40,000 km2 (largest) 2. Atlantic Ocean – 865,60,000 km2 3. Indian Ocean – 734,30,000 km2 4. Arctic Ocean – 132,30,000 km2 (smallest) Ocean is the biggest part of hydrosphere. Pacific ocean is the largest ocean in the world. There are two important characteristics of ocean water: temperature and salinity. The average depth of ocean is 3,800 m. The depth of ocean is represented by hypsographic metric curve. The part of ocean that is surrounded by water from three sides and ocean by one side is called sea. The part of sea that enters into the land is called gulf. When the sea is surrounded from two sides by land, that is, one side faces a group of island and the other side faces sea, is called a bay. Table 6.2 Deepest oceans in the world Name

Deepest point (km) Deepest point (miles) Ocean

Mariana Trench

11.0

6.83

Pacific Ocean (near Japan)

Philippine Trench

10.4

6.46

Pacific Ocean (near the Philippine islands)

(contd)

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Unit II Geography | 191 Table 6.2 (Contd) Name

Deepest point (km) Deepest point (miles) Ocean

Bonin Trench

9.99

6.20

Pacific Ocean (near Japan)

New Britain Trench

9.94

6.17

Pacific Ocean (near New Guinea)

Kuril Trench

9.75

6.05

Pacific Ocean (near Russia)

Some Features of Hydrosphere Generally, the ocean temperature remains between 5°C and 33°C. Oceans are rich sources of minerals; however, some are diluted and some are found in solid state. Some main diluted minerals are sodium chloride, magnesium chloride, sodium sulphate, and calcium. The taste of water is saline because of the composition of these minerals. Salinity differs from ocean to ocean. In one litre of water, 35% composition is salinity.

Waves and Currents The ocean water never remains still and always in a state of motion. It has three types of motions. The first type of motion is tide and ebb; it is systematic and continuous process of upward and downward movement of water and the basic reason of this movement is gravitational power of sun and moon. Ebb and tide do not move water per se location wise; however, it just moves it upward and downward without vv changing the location. The second type of motion of water is currents. They occur due to the friction of water and air on the surface of ocean. It also does not necessarily change the location of water but it keeps the water in motion vertically. The third type of motion is ocean waves. Ocean waves are dynamic and it keeps the water in motion in one direction only. This third type of motion is important in a way that it moves the location of water. The ocean waves are the result of combination of salinity, volume, temperature, the coastal size, rotation of earth and air waves, and so on. The density of ocean water depends on the temperature and salinity of that water. There are two types of ocean streams: warm stream and cold stream. When the temperature of stream is more than the temperature of that particular latitude is called warm stream and when the temperature of stream is less than the temperature of that particular latitude is called cold stream. In this way, the streams that flow from lower latitudes to upper latitudes are warm streams and those flow from upper to lower latitudes are cold streams. Except these streams, there are some sub-surface streams that play vital role in balancing seawater. In the northern spheres, the streams move clockwise; while in southern spheres, the streams move anticlockwise because of the rotation of the earth. The temperature of the ocean plays an important role in the determination of temperature of places on the earth. Some of the most important streams are northern and southern equatorial streams, gulf stream, Florida stream, Brazil stream, North Atlantic Drift, and Agulhas stream; all these streams are warm in nature.

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192 | Chapter 6 Water Some cold water streams are Labrador Streams, Canneri stream, Benguela stream, Falkland stream, Alaska stream, Peru stream, Humboldt stream , Oyashio stream and Canaries stream. 1. Streams of Atlantic Ocean: Warm streams of Atlantic ocean are northern equatorial stream, gulf stream, Florida stream, southern equatorial stream, and Brazil stream. Cold streams are Labrador stream, Falkland stream, Antarctic stream, north Greenland stream, and Canneri stream. 2. Streams of Pacific Ocean: The warm streams of Pacific Ocean are Northern Equatorial stream, Sushima stream, Kuroshio stream, Northern Pacific stream, and Eastern Australia stream. Some cold streams are Alaska stream, Peru stream, Humboard stream, California Stream, and Antarctic stream. 3. Streams of Indian Ocean: Warm streams are southern equatorial streams, Agulhas stream, and Mozambique stream. Cold streams are western Australian stream. A narrow water way that joins two different gulfs, oceans, or seas is called a strait and a narrow way that joins two big landscapes is called Isthmus. For example, Gibraltar Strait that joins Atlantic Ocean with Mediterranean Sea and Panama Isthmus that connects Northern America with Southern America.

LAKES In comparison to sea and ocean, the rivers and lakes are smaller. A lake is a trench full of water. Although the lakes do not have a flow of water, there are some exceptions too. Many lakes are formed like a river. Some of the rivers enter into lakes, whereas the others flow out of it. In comparison to lakes, the rivers have a flow. There are several types of lakes such as man-made, natural, freshwater, and saline. Freshwater lakes are formed due to the melting of ice and it is necessary that these lakes are connected with rivers. These are found on high and medium latitudes. Some examples are Baikal, Titicaca, Wular, Dal, Manasarovar, and so on. Salty lakes are found in the areas of high evaporation and low rainfall; further, these are not connected with any river that is why they are still. These are used in the production of salt like Sambhar Lake of Rajasthan. Some of the lakes are well-connected with the sea like Chilika Lake of Orissa. Natural lakes are made of activities of tectonic plates or crater of volcanoes. India’s Lunar Lake is example of Crater Lake or natural lake. Soil erosion, river erosion, and air erosion are also cause the formation of these types of lakes. Baikal, Caspian, and death sea are examples of these types of lakes. Man-made lakes are formed due to the multipurpose projects originating from different countries; these projects include irrigation, control of floods, and electricity production. Some of the man-made lakes such as Gobind Sagar of Bhakra Nangal and Gandhi Sagar of Chambal are formed due to the construction of dams.

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Unit II Geography | 193 Some of the famous lakes around the world are as follows: 1. Caspian Sea (Russia and Kazakhstan): 436,000 km2 2. Superior (Canada and USA): 82,100 km2 3. Victoria (Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania): 68,870 km2 4. Huron (Canada and USA): 59,600 km2 5. Michigan (USA): 58,000 km2 6. Tanganyika (Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia, and Congo): 32,600 km2 7. Baikal (Russia): 31,500 km2 8. Great bear lake (Canada): 31,000 km2

RIVERS A relatively constant way of water flowing in a direction is called river. Rivers are the biggest source of freshwater. Some of the famous rivers around the world are as follows: 1. Nile (Egypt and Sudan): 4,132 miles (longest river in the world) 2. Amazon (South America): 3,976 miles 3. Yangtze river or Changjiang (China): 3,915 miles 4. Mississippi (North America): 3,734 miles 5. Yenisei (Siberia): 3,445 miles 6. Yellow river (China): 3,395 miles 7. Ob river (Siberia and Russia): 3,395 miles 8. Panama river (Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina): 3,030 miles 9. Congo river (Congo): 2920 miles 10. Amur river (Manchuria): 2763 miles

WATER RESOURCES OF INDIA India is a developing country. It has a large population in which more than 60% of people are working under the agriculture sector. On the other hand, industries are developing very fast and becoming the backbone of India’s economy. It is also a country of different climate regions. At a specific period of time, one place will be affected by flood, and the other will be suffering from drought. All these qualities of this county make it highly dependent on some natural resources and water is the most important resource among them. We use water in our agriculture and developing industries; further, we use it to fulfil the water needs of a very large population and we use it in our developing infrastructure. We are decreasing our dependency on monsoon to make sustainable development of our personal and commercial agriculture. Therefore, it is very easy to understand the importance of water resources for us. India accounts for about 2.45% of world’s surface area, 4% of the world’s water resources, and about 16% of world’s population. The total

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194 | Chapter 6 Water water available from precipitation in the country in a year is about 4,000 km3. The availability from surface and replenishable groundwater is 1,869 km3. From this, only 60% can be used for beneficial purposes. Thus, the total utilisable water resources in the country are only 1,122 km3. (Unit 3, Chapter 6, Water Resources, Class 12, NCERT, pp. 60.)

Surface Water Resources We can divide surface water resources into four major sources: ponds, tanks, lakes, and rivers. India has gifted thousands of rivers by nature. There are almost 10,360 listed rivers. From these rivers, India gets more than 1,869 km3 of freshwater. However, due to many geographical reasons, only 32% of that water can be utilised. The amount water in river totally depends upon the size of its catchment area of river basin and the amount of rainfall occurred in the area of catchment of river. Some of the Indian Rivers has huge catchment area. The Ganga, the Brahmaputra, and the Barak rivers are leading them. These rivers are the source of 60% of surface water sources of India. Table 6.3 Basin-wise groundwater potential and utilisation in India (cubic km/year) S.no.

Name of basin groundwater resources

Brahmani with Baitarani

Brahmaputra

Chambal Composite

Kaveri

12.3

Ganga 170.99

33.52

Godavari 40.65

19.53

Indus 26.49

77.71

Krishna 26.41

30.39

Kuchchh and Saurashtra including river Luni

11.23

51.14

10.

Chennai and South Tamil Nadu

18.22

57.68

11.

Mahanadi

16.46

6.95

12.

Meghna (Barak and others)

8.52

3.94

13.

Narmada

10.83

21.74

14.

Northeast Composite

18.84

17.2

15.

Pennar

4.93

36.6

16.

Subarnrekha

1.82

17.

Tapi

8.27

33.05

18.

Western Ghat

17.69

22.88

431.42

31.97

Total

Total replenishable Level of groundwater utilisation (%) 4.05

8.45

26.55

3.37

7.19

40.09 55.33

9.57

Source: Class 12, NCERT Geography text book, Unit 3, Chapter 6, Water Resources, page 61

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Unit II Geography | 195

Groundwater Resources In India, we have 432 km3 freshwater resources as groundwater. However, 46% of total replenishable groundwater resources of country are shared by the Ganga and the Brahmaputra basins. As we know, we are a developing country and working hard to develop our agriculture and industries. This is the reason why utilisation of groundwater is very high in many parts of our country. The leading states where utilisation of groundwater is very high are Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Maharashtra.

Surface Water Withdrawals Domestic 9%

Ground Water Withdrawals Domestic 3%

Industrial 2%

Agriculture 89%

Industrial 5%

Agriculture 92%

Figure 6.2 (a) Sectoral usage of surface water (b) Sectoral usage of groundwater

MAJOR RIVER SYSTEMS IN INDIA India is the country of thousands of rivers. From north to south and east to west, there are many river systems in India. However, two major river systems are Ganges river system and Indus river system.

Ganges River System There are many rivers in this system. The major rivers merging in this system move from west to east. The rivers are as follows: 1. Chambal 2. Betwa 3. Yamuna 4. Gomti

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196 | Chapter 6 Water 5. Ghaghra 6. Son 7. Gandaki 8. Koshi 9. Brahmaputra

Indus River System It originates in the northern Kailash range near Manasarovar Lake in Tibet. The major rivers of this system are as follows: 1. Indus 2. Chenab 3. Jhelum 4. Ravi 5. Sutlej 6. Beas 7. Shyok 8. Zanskar

Famous Lakes of India The famous lakes of India are as follows: 1. Wular Lake (Jammu and Kashmir): It is the largest freshwater lake in India. The length and width of the lake are approximately 16 km and 9.6 km, respectively. 2. Dal Lake (Jammu and Kashmir): It is located in Srinagar. It is also known as Crown of Kashmir. 3. Chilika Lake (Odisha): It is the second largest lagoon lake of the world. 4. Pangong Lake (Ladakh): It is situated at the height of about 4,350 m. 5. Sambhar Salt Lake (Rajasthan): It is the largest inland salt lake of India. It is a bowl-shaped lake. 6. Bhimtal Lake (Uttarakhand): It has a large variety of aquatic life and winter stoppage of birds from trans-Himalayan region. 7. Lonar Lake (Maharashtra): It is a crater lake.

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ Almost 71% of surface of earth is covered by water. ➨ Ocean is the biggest part of hydrosphere. Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean in the world.

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Unit II Geography | 197 ➨ The part of ocean that is surrounded by water from three sides and ocean by one side is called Sea. ➨ Generally, the ocean temperature remains between 5°C and 33°C. Oceans are rich sources of minerals; however, some are diluted and some are found in solid state. ➨ The ocean water never remains still and always in a state of motion. It has three types of motions: tide, currents, and ocean waves. ➨ There are two types of ocean streams: warm stream and cold stream. ➨ In the northern spheres, the streams move clockwise; while in the southern spheres, the streams move anticlockwise because of the rotation of the earth. ➨ A narrow water way that joins two different gulfs, oceans, or seas is called a strait and a narrow way that joins two big landscapes is called Isthmus. ➨ There are several types of lakes such as man-made, natural, freshwater, and saline. ➨ Freshwater lakes are formed due to the melting of ice and it is necessary that these lakes are connected with rivers. ➨ Salty lakes are found in the areas of high evaporation and low rainfall; these are not connected with any river and that is why they are still. ➨ Natural lakes are made of activities of tectonic plates or crater of volcanoes. India’s Lunar Lake is an example of Crater Lake or natural lake. ➨ Man-made lakes are formed due to multipurpose projects of countries; these projects include irrigation, control of floods, and electricity production. ➨ We can divide surface water resources into four major sources: ponds, tanks, lakes, and rivers. ➨ In India, we have 432 km3 freshwater resources as groundwater. However, 46% of total replenishable groundwater resources of country are shared by the Ganga and the Brahmaputra basins. ➨ Two major river systems are Ganges river system and Indus river system. ➨ Wular Lake (Jammu and Kashmir) is the largest freshwater lake in India. Its approximate length and width of 16 km × 9.6 km. ➨ Chilika Lake (Odisha) is the second largest lagoon lake in the world. ➨ Sambhar Salt Lake (Rajasthan) is the largest inland salt lake in India. It is a bowl-shaped lake.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1. What do you understand by waves and currents of ocean? 2. What is hydrosphere? 3. Explain the distribution of water bodies. 4. What is the difference between bay and gulf? Explain with examples.

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5. What is lake? Explain different types of lakes. 6. What is surface water resource? Explain with examples in the context of India. 7. What is groundwater resource? Explain the distribution and utilisation of groundwater in India.

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198 | Chapter 6 Water

Objective Questions 1. Which one of the following Indian rivers has the largest basin area? (a) Ganga (b) Yamuna (c) Kaveri (d) Krishna 2. Which of the following states has a very high rate of groundwater utilisation? (a) Punjab (b) Kerala (c) Orissa (d) Karnataka 3. Which of the following river basins has huge amount of groundwater? (a) Brahmaputra (b) Kaveri (c) Chambal (d) Godavari 4. Which of the following sectors has the highest rate of utilisation of groundwater in India? (a) Agriculture (b) Industries (c) Domestic (d) None of these

(c) 8% (d) 10% 7. Which one of the following is the longest river in the world? (a) Nile (b) Ganga (c) Amazon (d) Hudson 8. Which one of the following is a salty lake? (a) Dead Sea (b) Baikal (c) Titicaca (d) Manasarovar 9. Which one of the following is a freshwater lake? (a) Titicaca (b) Chilika (c) Dead Sea (d) Aral Sea 10. Which of the following is the largest ocean of the world? (a) Pacific Ocean (b) Indian Ocean (c) Atlantic Ocean (d) Arctic Ocean

5. Which of the following sectors has the highest rate of utilisation of surface water in India? (a) Agriculture (b) Industries (c) Domestic (d) None of these

11. Which of the following is the deepest point of ocean? (a) Mariana Trench (b) Bonin Trench (c) Kuril Trench (d) Philippine Trench

6. What is the share of India in total amount of freshwater of the world? (a) 4% (b) 6%

12. What is the movement of streams in northern sphere of earth? (a) Clockwise (b) Anticlockwise

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Unit II Geography | 199 (c) East to west (d) West to east 13. Which one of the following is the warm stream? (a) Gulf stream (b) Labrador stream (c) Canneri stream (d) Falkland stream 14. Which one of the following is the cold stream? (a) Alaska stream (b) Brazil stream (c) Agulhas stream (d) Florida stream 15. A narrow water way that joins two different gulfs, oceans, or seas is called (a) Strait (b) Isthmus (c) Canal (d) None of these 16. Which one of the following is the manmade lake? (a) Gobind Sagar (b) Chilika (c) Sambhar (d) Baikal

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17. Which of the following is the largest lake of the world? (a) Caspian Sea (b) Lake Superior (c) Lake Victoria (d) None of these 18. Which of the following is the largest salty lake of the world? (a) Caspian Sea (b) Lake Superior (c) Michigan Lake (d) None of these 19. Which of the following is the example of Crater Lake? (a) Lunar lake (b) Gobind Sagar (c) Gandhi Sagar (d) Chilika 20. Which of the following is the example of isthmus? (a) Panama (b) Gibraltar (c) Malacca (d) Palk

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CHAPTER

Agriculture

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • • • •

Understand agriculture as a profession Explore and understand the various kinds of agricultural systems Become aware about various types and forms of cultivation Know about the necessary conditions needed to grow a particular crop Familiarise the cropping patterns in India

INTRODUCTION Agriculture is the primary occupation of India, and it is the main source of food. It is defined differently in different parts of world. It includes production of crops and animal husbandry. Animal husbandry includes caring and management of farm animals. Farming is the primary economic process and depends upon the climatic and environmental conditions of a particular place. Soil, humidity, and temperature also play a significant role in the development of farming. Tropical region is the most favourable and developed region in agriculture because of the climatic conditions and the easily and cheaply available human resources. Appropriate rainfall is also important for agriculture.

AGRICULTURE SYSTEM In agriculture system, the relationship between farmers and land is studied. In this system, there are different types of cultivations followed and some of them are as follows: 1. Personal cultivation: It is the most famous agriculture type in the world. Here, the farmer cultivates his land as per his need and choice. He is responsible for his loss and gain, and sometimes farmers borrow land from landlords and farm the land for their use. 2. Commercial cultivation: This type of cultivation is mostly seen in the regions where people have vast land. Farmers not only farm for their personal needs but also for commercial purposes. A large amount of agriculture production is contributed by commercial farming.

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Unit II Geography | 201 3. Cooperative cultivation: This type of cultivation is done in the developed nations where the farmers contribute their land, resources, and equipment, and give up their personal interest. It is totally based on group work. This type of farming is practiced in Israel, Netherlands, and Belgium, and in Israel, it is called kibbutzim. The production of this farming is distributed among the contributors.

FORMS OF CULTIVATION There are various kinds of farm cultivation. Some of them are discussed below: 1. Place-bound cultivation: This cultivation is practiced by the farmers from a very long time, continuously without leaving the land. It is one of the major cultivation types across the world including India. 2. Shifting cultivation: It is opposite of place-bound cultivation. First, the forest land is cleared, and a piece of land is prepared for cultivation. Here, cultivation is done for a specific period of time, and after that, it is left for rejuvenation, and a new forest land is cleared to do the same practice again. 3. Staircase cultivation: It is practiced on hilly areas to protect the soil from soil erosion. It is also known as step cultivation. The staircase type cultivation prevents the intense flow of water from hills and prevention of soil erosion is ensured. This type of cultivation is also a place-bound and permanent cultivation type. 4. Irrigation cultivation: This cultivation is practiced in sub-tropical regions. It is done in low rain areas, and cultivation is done through the help of irrigation. In India, rice and sugarcane cultivation is done through this type of cultivation. 5. Dry cultivation: In regions where there is low rain and with no irrigation facility, crops are developed under dry conditions. In these regions, crops which can bear high temperature and dryness are cultivated. This type of cultivation is done in India, Australia, and North America. The crops which need irrigation are also cultivated in these lands. 6. Rotation cultivation: The main aim of rotation cultivation is to preserve the fertility of the land. In this system, different crops are cultivated on rotation basis on the same land. Some crops get nutrition from upper layer of the land, whereas some crops absorb nutrition from the depth. 7. Mixed cultivation: When two or more than two types of crops are cultivated on the same land in a year, it is called mixed cultivation. When we do not leave the land without the crop and it is called relay cultivation. In India, Rabi and Kharif crops are cultivated on the same piece of land. Other countries where mixed cultivation is done include China, Japan, and some parts of Europe.

TYPES OF CULTIVATION Various types of cultivation are as follows: 1. Intensive cultivation: The main objective of this kind of cultivation is to harvest more from a given specific piece of land. It requires good quality seeds, man power, machinery, and fertilizers.

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202 | Chapter 7 Agriculture It is mostly done in densely populated areas of the world, and it is very popular in China, Japan, Eastern Asia, and Western Europe. 2. Extensive cultivation: It is done on big farm lands with the help of agricultural machineries. Manpower and animal power are used very minimal in this type of cultivation. Only one type of crop is cultivated in a year due to the availability of vast land for cultivation. It is popular in sparsely populated areas of the world such as in USA, Canada, and Australia. 3. Shifting cultivation: It is opposite of place-bound cultivation. First, the forest land is cleared and a part of it is prepared for cultivation. Farming is done for a specific period, and after that, it is left for rejuvenation and a new forest land is cleared to do the same practice again. 4. Nomadic cultivation: In sub-tropical regions, some nomadic communities migrate from one place to another in search of water and fodder for their animals. They survive on the productions of animals. This type of nomadic cultivation is found in some parts of Northern Africa, Middle Asia, and Arabia. 5. Specialised plantation cultivation: To meet the demand supply of fruits and vegetables, this type of cultivation is practiced in cities and industrial areas. Plantation cultivation is developed in high densely populated areas of Europe. 6. Dairy cultivation and animal husbandry: Because of great demand of dairy products in the cities of Europe, this type of cultivation was developed and spread to other parts of the world. The temperate zone of Europe is conducive for animal Cattling. The animal Cattling provides milk and milk products such as butter, cheese, curd, and so on to the population. Denmark, New Zealand, and Sweden are the largest producers of livestock products.

MAJOR CROPS Some of the major crops of the world are as follows: 1. Rice: It is a crop of tropical and humid regions. To grow rice, the required temperature is 20°C to 27°C. Soil conducive for this crop is loam and alluvial soils. Rice cultivation requires a large quantity of water and more than 100 cm rainfall. In addition, it requires good enough manpower for cultivation. China, Indonesia, and India are the major producers of rice in the world. 2. Wheat: Wheat production is popular in the Prairie and Steppe regions. Good water draining soil is necessary for its cultivation. Other conditions required are 15°C–20°C temperature and rainfall of 75 cm. Nowadays, machinery is used at a massive level in wheat cultivation. It is the major crop of extensive cultivation, and it is a crop of temperate and tropical and sub-tropical regions. China, USA, India, France, and Russia are the major producers of Wheat. 3. Millets: It is an excellent source of protein. It is cultivated in the same regions where wheat is cultivated. It is a raw source for beer production. It can be cultivated in less fertile soils and regions with mean rainfall. Major producers of millets are Canada, Russia, Germany, and Ukraine.

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Unit II Geography | 203 4. Maize: Basically, it is an American crop. It is also known as corn. To grow maize, the required temperature is 18°C to 27°C and rainfall of 60–70 cm. Loamy (Loam) soils are good maize cultivation. In Northern America, this crop is cultivated to feed the livestock. The major producers of maize are China, Mexico, Brazil, and Nigeria. 5. Cotton: It is a fine source of fibre used in cloth manufacturing, which comes from fruits of its plants. It requires tropical climate with medium rainfall. To grow cotton, the required temperature is 25°C and at least 200 days without frost. Black and alluvial soils are ideal for this crop. It decreases the fertility of soil. Major producers of cotton are China, USA, Pakistan, India, and Uzbekistan. 6. Jute: Jute is cultivated from the stem of jute plant. To grow jute, the required temperature required is 27°C to 30°C and rainfall of 100–200 cm. It needs high humidity. It is the major crop of delta regions. It also decreases the fertility of soil very fast. Bangladesh and India are the major producers. 7. Coffee: Coffee plants are cultivated under some trees like rubber to avoid direct sunlight. To grow coffee, the required temperature is 26°C and rainfall of 150–200 cm. It is totally a crop of warm and wet region. Coffee is an important beverage, and the major producers are Brazil, Columbia, Mexico, Uganda, and Indonesia. 8. Tea: Tea plants are cultivated steep hilly areas especially in the monsoon regions. To grow tea, the required temperature is 21°C and rainfall of 200 cm. A long dry season is necessary for its cultivation. Direct sun light is not good for its cultivation; therefore, trees are planted to provide shade. Tea is a very important beverage, and the major producers are India, China, Sri Lanka, and Kenya. 9. Sugarcane: It is an important source for the production of sugar. To grow sugarcane, the required temperature is 20°C to 28°C and rainfall of 120 cm. It requires very fertile land. India, Brazil, and Cuba are the largest producers of sugarcane.

Cropping in India In India, agriculture is the primary occupation. More than 60% of total population is either directly or indirectly involved in agriculture. We can divide Indian cropping on the basis of three seasons, namely kharif, rabi, and zaid. We can also divide Indian cropping on the basis of seasons of northern states and southern states. 1. Kharif: The cropping season of kharif is from June to September. Rice, cotton bajra, maize, jowar, and tur are some of the important kharif crops of northern states, whereas in the southern states, rice, maize, ragi, jowar, and groundnut are cultivated during this season. 2. Rabi: The cropping season of rabi is from October to March. Wheat, gram, rapeseeds, mustard, and barley are some of the important rabi crops of northern states, whereas in southern states, rice, maize, ragi, groundnut, and jowar are cultivated during this season.

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204 | Chapter 7 Agriculture 3. Zaid: The cropping season of Zaid crops is from April to June. In this season, mostly vegetables, fruits, and fodder are cultivated in northern states, whereas in southern states rice, vegetables, and fodder are the important crops of this season.

Cropping Patterns in India Food grains India is a densely populated country and it needs a very huge amount of food to feed the population. Here, food grains cropping plays a very vital role to feed India’s population. This quality of this crop make it very dominant and significant cropping. It is also used for commercial purposes and to strengthen the economy of the country. Food grain cropping occupies about two-third of the total cropped area. We can divide food grains in two types on the basis of its structure, namely cereals and pulses. 1. Cereals: In India, cereals cropping occupies about half of the cropped area of the county. India produces more than 10% of cereals of the world. It ranks 3rd after China and USA in cereal cropping. Cereals cropping can also be divided into two types, namely fine grains such as rice and wheat, and coarse grains such as jowar, bajra, maize, and ragi. (a) Rice: It has a very vital position among cereals. Majority of Indian population depend on rice for their survival. India has more than 3000 varieties of rice, and we export various varieties of good quality rice all over the world. Many states of India produce rice. It is cultivated in northern states like Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, northern Rajasthan, and West Bengal, and in southern states like Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Kerala. India produces more than 22% of World’s total rice production. The northern regions of India like Haryana and Punjab are not traditional producers of rice and they started producing it after the green revolution. (b) Wheat: It is the second important crop of India after rice. India produces more than 12% of world’s total wheat production. Indo-Gangetic plains, Malwa Plateau, and Himalayas up to 2700 m altitude are the best regions of wheat production in India. (c) Jowar: It is grown as both kharif and rabi crop. In northern India, it is considered as kharif crop, whereas in southern India, it is consider as a rabi crop. In northern India, it is grown as a fodder crop. It occupies about 5.3% of total cropped area of India. Maharashtra is the main region that produces more than 50% of total jowar cropping in India. (d) Bajra: It is a crop of dry and hot climate region. Usually it is grown under mixed cropping. This cereal occupies about 5.2% of total cropped area of India. Leading states that produces Bajra are Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, and Maharashtra. It is droughtresistant crop. (e) Maize: It can be categorised as food crop as well as fodder crop. It occupies about 3.6% of total cropped area of India. Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka are the leading producers of maize.

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Unit II Geography | 205 2. Pulses: They are very rich source of proteins. Through the process of nitrogen fixation, it increases the fertility of soils. India is one of the leading producers of pulses as it produces almost 50% of world’s total pulse production. The leading regions of t pulse production in India are the dry lands of Deccan and Central Plateaus and north western parts of the country. In India, gram and arhar are the most commonly grown pulses. (a) Gram: It is a rabi crop and the crop of subtropical region. It does not need much water to grow successfully. It occupies almost 2.8% of total cropped area of India. The leading producers of gram are Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Rajasthan. (b) Arhar: It is the second important pulse crop of India after gram. It is also known as pigeon pea. It is the crop of dry areas. It covers only 2% of total cropped area of India. Maharashtra is the leading producer of arhar in India. After Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh are also good producers of arhar.

Other Important Crops of India 1. Sugarcane: It is a crop of tropical areas. It needs humid climate to grow successfully. In India, Uttar Pradesh is famous for sugarcane farming. It also cultivated in Maharashtra and Gujarat on large level. In southern India, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh also cultivate sugarcane. Uttar Pradesh produces about two-fifth of sugarcane of India’s total production. 2. Tea: Tea is a plantation crop which is mainly used for commercial purpose. It is a rich source of caffeine and tannin. Humid and sub-humid hilly areas are appropriate places for growing tea. In India, Assam state is the biggest producer. India is one of the top producers of tea among Sri Lanka and China. 3. Coffee: Coffee is also used as a beverage like tea. It is tropical crop, and India grows ‘Arabica’ coffee (Arabica is one of the three types of coffee—Arabica, Robusta, and Liberica), which is a superior quality coffee. It has high demand in international market. Its plants are cultivated under some trees to keep them away from direct sunlight.

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ Agriculture is the primary occupation of India. It includes production of crops and animal husbandry. Animal husbandry includes caring and management of farm animals. ➨ When a farmer cultivates his land as per his need and choice, it is called personal cultivation. ➨ In commercial cultivation, the farmers not only farm for their personal needs but also for commercial purposes. ➨ When farmers contribute their land, resources, and equipment, and gives up their personal interest, it is known as cooperative cultivation. It is totally based on group work.

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206 | Chapter 7 Agriculture ➨ There are various forms of cultivation such as place-bound cultivation, shifting cultivation, staircase cultivation, irrigation cultivation, dry cultivation, mixed cultivation, and rotation cultivation. ➨ Intensive cultivation, extensive cultivation, shifting cultivation, nomadic cultivation, dairy cultivation and animal husbandry, and specialised plantation cultivation are different types of cultivation. ➨ Rice is a crop of tropical and humid regions. To grow rice, the required temperature is 20°C to 27°C. Soil conducive for this crop is loam and alluvial soils. ➨ Wheat production is popular in the Prairie and Steppe regions. Good water-draining soil is necessary for its cultivation. Other conditions required are 15°C–20°C temperature and rainfall of 75 cm. ➨ Cotton cultivation requires tropical climate with medium rainfall. Temperature required is 25°C and at least 200 days without frost. Black and alluvial soils are ideal for this crop. ➨ Coffee is an important beverage. The temperature required is 26°C and rain fall of 150–200 cm. ➨ We can divide Indian cropping on the basis of three seasons, namely kharif, rabi, and zaid.

Check Your Progress 1. Why agriculture is called primary occupation of India, explain with suitable examples? 2. What is the difference among personal cultivation, commercial cultivation, and cooperative cultivation, explain with suitable examples? 3. Explain different forms of cultivation with examples.

4. What are the different types of cultivation, explain with examples? 5. Discuss the farming conditions of the following crops, rice, wheat, maize, and millets. 6. Explain the cropping seasons of India.

Objective Questions 1. Agriculture is the primary occupation because (a) it is the main source of food. (b) it contributes major part in world economy. (c) it is an ancient occupation. (d) None of these 2. When a farmer farms according to his personal need and choices, it is called:

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Personal cultivation Commercial cultivation Cooperative cultivation None of these

3. Which of the following best define commercial cultivation? (a) Farming for sale (b) Framing for survival

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Unit II Geography | 207 (c) Farming for store (d) None of these 4. Which of the following best define cooperative cultivation? (a) Group work-based farming (b) Government-supported farming (c) Farming by cooperative firms (d) None of these 5. What do you understand by shifting cultivation? (a) Shifting the place of farming (b) Shifting the crop (c) Shifting the technique of farming (d) None of these 6. What is the major characteristic of placebound cultivation? (a) Same place, long time (b) Different place, same crop (c) Farming of time-taking crops (d) None of these 7. What do you understand by staircase cultivation? (a) Farming on coastal areas (b) Farming on hilly areas (c) Farming on plains (d) None of these 8. Which of the following form of cultivation suits low rain areas? (a) Irrigation cultivation (b) Staircase cultivation (c) Shifting cultivation (d) Rotation cultivation 9. What is the aim of rotation cultivation? (a) Maintain nutrition in soil (b) To earn more profit (c) Fulfil the need of varieties of crops (d) None of these

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10. When two or more than two types of crops are cultivated on the same land in one year, it is called: (a) Mixed cultivation (b) Rotation cultivation (c) Irrigation cultivation (d) Staircase cultivation 11. Which of following is a characteristic of extensive cultivation? (a) Extensive use of machinery (b) Extensive use of manpower (c) Extensive use of natural power (d) Extensive use of animal power 12. What do you understand by nomadic cultivation? (a) Animal grazing (b) Pulses cropping (c) Cereal cropping (d) None of these 13. Rice needs _________ to grow successfully. (a) large quantity of water (b) black soil (c) costal soil (d) None of these 14. Which of the following is the major crop of extensive cultivation? (a) Wheat (b) Cotton (c) Maize (d) Millets 15. Which of the following crop is used in beer production? (a) Millets (b) Maize (c) Rice (d) Cocoa

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208 | Chapter 7 Agriculture 16. Which type of climatic conditions is needed for cropping of cotton? (a) Tropical climate and medium rainfall (b) Sub-tropical climate and heavy rainfall (c) High humidity (d) None of these 17. Which of the following crop is planted under the trees to keep away from direct sun light? (a) Coffee (b) Cotton (c) Jute (d) Peanuts 18. Which is the most vital crop of the southern part of India? (a) Rice (b) Wheat

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(c) Maize (d) Millets 19. Which of the following is the crop of Kharif? (a) Rice (b) Wheat (c) Mustard (d) Barley 20. Which of the following is the crop of Rabi? (a) Wheat (b) Rice (c) Cotton (d) Bajra 21. Which of the following is the crop of Zaid? (a) Fodder (b) Gram (c) Jowar (d) Barley

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CHAPTER

Resources

LEARNING OBjECTIvES • • • •

Develop understanding about various kinds of resources Understand the importance of resources for mankind Know the various kinds of categories and sub-categories of resources Become aware of the energy resources

INTRODUCTION The things around us with which we fulfil our needs and which have utility values are called resources. All the resources used by mankind have the potential to produce energy which is useful for us. Resources are needed for the vital infrastructural facilities that are used extensively by all the sectors of human activities such as industries, agriculture, transportation, households, and service sectors. We need resources such as electricity, cooking gas, oils, and so on to meet our daily needs at our home. We cannot imagine cooking without energy that comes directly from resources such as fire, kerosene, cooking gas, or electricity. Similarly, in agriculture, we use human resources like man to work in the fields and animals to plough the fields. Now, in modern times, these animals are replaced by machines such as tractors, harvesters, and so on. However, what is reality here is that we need resources. Industries are also dependent on resources to produce various products used by us. The large machineries at factories need resources like electricity or oil to operate, and they also need human resources to keep the machines working. There is a long list where resources are needed and life is beyond imagination without the resources.

TYPES OF RESOURCES On the basis of availability, accessibility resources have been categorized as following:

Natural Resources The resources that are provided by the nature and used in their natural forms or with a slight human modification are called natural resources. The air we breathe and the water we use from rivers, lakes, etc., are some of the examples of natural resources.

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210 | Chapter 8 Resources The earth is full of resources, but all the resources could not be known or used at once. We need innovation, technology, and time to make those resources available for our use. On the basis of these features, the resources are classified as follows: 1. Actual resources: The resources that are readily available and whose stock, distribution, and deposit are known to mankind are called actual resources. 2. Potential resources: The resources that are not readily available and whose quantity and stock are not known to mankind are called potential resources. We use a lot of energy and resources daily, but they differ in one feature, that is, the availability of the resources. On the possibility of their availability, recycling, and scope of renewal, the resources are classified as follows: 1. Renewable resources: The resources whose total stock and availability remain unaffected irrespective of their consumption are called renewable resources. As the word itself defines, renewable means which have the capacity to reproduce itself or which can be renewed. 2. Non-renewable resources: The resources whose total stock and availability are affected due to their consumption are called non-renewable resources. As the word itself defines, non-renewable means which do not have the capacity to reproduce itself or which cannot be renewed. 3. Man-made resources: Although we use a lot of energy and resources daily, all these are not provided by nature in natural form directly. Some of the natural resources are modified to make their usability worthy. Such resources are called man-made resources. 4. Human resources: Human resources mean use of humans as resources in the form of workforce. Some scholars called it as human capital. All the resources in India can be categorised into various categories. Resources such as water, land, minerals, etc., are very crucial for India. These resources also have many sub-categories. We will be discussing these categories and sub-categories in this section.

Water resources Water, like oxygen, is necessary for human survival. Without it, we cannot imagine how the earth would be. Water covers almost 71 per cent of the total surface area of the earth. We can divide water sources into two categories: first is saline water and the other is fresh water. In total, only 3 per cent of fresh water is available on earth. India accounts for about 4 per cent of world’s water resources. There are two major sources of fresh water: one is surface water and the other is replenishing groundwater. 1. Surface water resources: We can include four major sources of water under surface water resources. These are rivers, lakes, ponds, and tanks. India is the land of rivers and we have about 10,360 rivers in our country. The annual flow of water in these rivers is about 1869 cubic km, but we cannot use all of it. Due to various reasons, we got only 690 cubic km of it.

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Unit II Geography | 211 2. Groundwater resources: India has only 432 cubic km ground water. The Ganga and Brahmaputra basins have about 46 per cent of it. Groundwater utilization is very high in India.

Land and agricultural resources As a resource, land has multiple uses for human beings. It can be used as a residence and for production. As a resource, land incorporates different types of residential buildings, schools, roads, parks, We can easily categorise land resources based on its usage as follows: 1. Forest land: It comes under government announced forest area. 2. Non-agricultural land: Land which comes under urban and rural settlements, infrastructure, and industries are called non-agricultural land. 3. Barren and waste land: It includes hilly terrains, dessert lands, ravines, etc. This category of land cannot be used for cultivation. 4. Grazing lands: This type of land is usually owned by village Panchayat or government. These land properties are under common property resource. 5. Tree crops and groves area: In this category, we can include orchards and fruit trees. Most of these lands are private-owned properties. 6. Culturable waste land: It includes the lands that are not cultivated for more than five years. 7. Current fallow: It includes the lands that are left without cultivation for one agricultural year. It is a cultural practice to increase the fertility of a particular land in which that land is left uncultivated for a certain time period. 8. Net area sown: It is the physical extent of net sown land.

Minerals and energy resources Due to its geological structure, India has very rich varieties of mineral resources. In the era of industrial development, it is very vital for any country to have these types of resources. There are many types of resources under this category. We can categorise minerals into metallic minerals and non-metallic minerals based on the chemical and physical properties. 1. Metallic minerals: These minerals are the sources of metals. They are found under earth’s surface and mountains in the form of ores or in their impure forms. We can put iron ore, copper, gold, and so on in this category. We can divide metallic minerals in two sub-categories, namely ferrous and non-ferrous metallic minerals. Ferrous minerals are the minerals that have iron content. Non-ferrous metallic minerals are the minerals that do not have iron content. 2. Non-metallic minerals: There are two types of non-metallic minerals based on their origin, namely organic and inorganic. Non-metallic minerals are originated from fossil fuels such as coal, and petroleum comes under the category of organic minerals. The non-metallic minerals which are found in the form of rocks come under inorganic category. Mica, limestone, and graphite are some examples of non-metallic minerals.

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212 | Chapter 8 Resources Minerals have an inverse relationship between quality and quantity. It means low-quality minerals are easily available as they are high in quantity, whereas on the other side, high-quality minerals are rarely available because of their shortage in nature. Minerals take thousands of years to develop geologically. Hence, these minerals are limited in nature.

DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS IN INDIA Minerals have a characteristic of unequal distribution over the surface of earth. Some parts of earth are very rich in different types of valuable minerals, whereas some places do not have any. In India, there is unequal distribution of minerals. Most of the metallic minerals in India occur in the peninsular plateau region in the old crystalline rocks. Over 97 per cent of coal reserves occur in the valleys of Damodar, Sone, Mahanadi, and Godavari. Petroleum reserves are located in the sedimentary basins of Assam, Gujarat, and Mumbai high, i.e., off-shore region in the Arabian Sea. New reserves have been located in the Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basins. Most of the major minerals resources occur to the east of a line linking Mangalore and Kanpur. (NCERT textbook, Class 12, Geography, Chapter 7, Mineral and Energy Resources, pp. 73) Mineral deposits are spread over three regions in India as given below:

Figure 8.1 India (a) metallic minerals (ferrous) (b) minerals (non-ferrous)

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Unit II Geography | 213 1. The northeastern plateau: The northeastern plateau covers Jharkhand, Orissa plateau, West Bengal, and some parts of Chhattisgarh. This region is very rich in minerals such as iron, coal, manganese, bauxite, and mica. This is the main reason for the establishment of major iron and steel industries in this region. 2. The southwestern plateau: This plateau includes Karnataka, Goa, Kerala, and some parts of Tamil Nadu. This region is rich in bauxite and ferrous metals. 3. The northwestern region: Aravali in Rajasthan and some parts of Gujarat are included in this region Copper and zinc, sand stone. marble, along with Gypsum and Salt in Gujrat.

ENERGY RESOURCES Energy resources are primarily mineral fuels, which are essential for power generation. We all know that in every sector (agriculture, industry, transport, etc.), there is essential need of fuel that makes these sectors functional. In mineral fuels, we can include coal, petroleum, and natural gases. All these types of fuel minerals are originated from fossil fuels and are available in a very limited amount on earth. Nowadays, nuclear energy minerals are also considered in the category of energy resources. The trend of generating energy from nuclear energy minerals is developing very fast. It is considered as a source of future power generation. All these energy resources are called conventional sources of energy.

Conventional Energy Sources Coal Coal is the main mineral used in the generation of thermal energy in India. There are almost seven types of coal found across the world. These are peat, lignite, sub-bituminous, bituminous, steam, anthracite, and graphite. Anthracite coal is considered as the best quality of coal due its highest carbon content. Bituminous coal comes the second and lignite is considered as the lowest grade. In India, bituminous coal has almost 80 per cent share in total coal production. It can be found in Gondwana Coal Field in India, which is located in Damodar basin. These fields are in Jharkhand– Bengal coal belt. There are some vital coal fields in this area such as Bokaro, Giridih, Karanpura, and Jharia.

Petroleum From the day internal combustion engines became an important part of our daily life, the demand of petroleum increased day by day. This source of energy is the back bone of automobiles, railways, and aircrafts. Usually we get it from under the earth’s surface or from sea bed in natural form, that is, crude petroleum. It can be found in very old sedimentary rocks. In India, there are

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214 | Chapter 8 Resources many places which are famous for producing petroleum such as Digboi (the first petroleum producing region of India), Naharkatiya, Ankleshwar, Kalol, Mehsana, Navagam, Mumbai high, etc.

Natural gas Usually natural gas is found along with oil in all the oil fields, but natural gas has its exclusive reserves located near to eastern coasts. Some exclusive reserves of natural gas are also located in Tripura, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.

Figure 8.2 India (a) Conventional energy resources (b) Oil refineries Source: NCERT textbook, Class 12, Geography, Chapter 7, Mineral and Energy Resources, pp. 79 and 81

Nuclear energy resources In today’s world, nuclear energy is emerging very fast. It is a form of energy that is generated in nuclear power plants. These power generating units use heat and steam to generate power. The energy that creates heat and steam are generated in a process of splitting of uranium atoms. This process is called nuclear fission. As a source of energy, nuclear energy consumes very little fuel to generate more power in comparison to coal and petroleum. In India, we have seven nuclear power plants at Tarapur, Rawatbhata, Kudankulam, Kaiga, Kakrapar, Kalpakkam, and Narora.

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Unit II Geography | 215

Non-conventional Energy Sources Non-conventional energy sources are wind, tides, solar, geothermal heat, and biomass. The present world is focusing on non-conventional energy sources as a substitute for petroleum, coal, and bio gas because the earth has only very limited amount of conventional energy sources. These non-conventional energy sources are renewable and do not harm environment.

Solar energy Solar energy is a transformed energy that we get from sun. It is universal and inexhaustible source of energy. It is pollution free and available unlimitedly. To get this energy from sun’s heat, we should have solar panels. But this technology is still very costly for a common man.

Wind energy Wind energy is directly generated through wind by using windmills.

Tidal and wave energy As we know that water covers almost 70 per cent of total earth’s surface, in which seas contribute about 99 per cent. There is a tendency of rising and falling of sea water. It happens because of gravitational power of moon and sun. This rising and falling process is called tides. There is a lot to do in this area of generating energy through these tides.

Geothermal energy Geothermal energy refers to the use of heat of earth’s core to generate energy. Scientists of many countries are working on this source of energy.

Bioenergy Bioenergy is the energy produced from plant materials and animal excreta. Sometimes it is made from urban wastes also.

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ The things around us with which we fulfil our needs and which have utility values are called resources. ➨ Resources are needed for the vital infrastructural facilities that are used extensively by all the sectors of human activities such as industries, agriculture, transportation, households, and service sectors. ➨ The resources that are provided by the nature and used in their natural forms or with a slight human modification are called natural resources.

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216 | Chapter 8 Resources ➨ The resources that are not readily available and whose quantity and stock are not known to mankind are called potential resources. ➨ The resources whose total stock and availability remain unaffected irrespective of their consumption are called renewable resources. ➨ As a resource, land has multiple uses for human beings. It can be used as a residence and for production. ➨ Due to its geological structure, India has very rich varieties of mineral resources. In the era of industrial development, it is very vital for any country to have these types of resources. ➨ Minerals take thousands of years to develop geologically. Hence, these minerals are limited in nature. ➨ Wind energy is directly generated through wind by using windmills. ➨ The northeastern plateau covers Jharkhand, Orissa plateau, West Bengal, and some parts of Chhattisgarh. ➨ Non-conventional energy sources are wind, tides, solar, geothermal heat, and biomass. The present world is focusing on non-conventional energy sources as a substitute for petroleum, coal, and bio gas because the earth has only very limited amount of conventional energy sources. These non-conventional energy sources are renewable and do not harm environment.

Check Your Progress 1. Explain the term non-conventional energy with suitable examples. 2. What is the difference between metallic and non-metallic minerals? Give some examples for each category.

3. What is the difference between organic minerals and inorganic minerals? Explain it with appropriate examples. 4. What are energy resources? Explain the different types of energy resources. 5. Explain the minerals distribution in India.

Objective Questions 1. Which of the following is the best explanation of potential resources? (a) Resources that may be used in future. (b) Resources that are available for use in present. (c) Resources that are unlimited stocks. (d) None of these

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2. Which of the following is the best explanation of actual resources? (a) Resources that are available for use in present. (b) Resources that are not completely known to mankind.

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Unit II Geography | 217 (c) Resources that have availability only on land. (d) None of these 3. The resources which have a capacity to reproduce itself is called: (a) Renewable resources (b) Non-renewable resource (c) Human made resources (d) None of these 4. Which type of resources has limited availability and stock on earth? (a) Non-renewable resources (b) Renewable resources (c) Both the (a) and (b) (d) None of these 5. Which of the following is the appropriate explanation of human resource? (a) Work force of human (b) Human made resource (c) Resources found by human (d) None of these 6. What is approximate annual flow of water in Indian rivers? (a) 1869 cubic km (b) 1400 cubic km (c) 2100 cubic km (d) 432 cubic km

(c) Culturable waste land (d) Current fallow 9. Which of the following is the example of ferrous minerals? (a) Iron (b) Mica (c) Aluminium (d) Copper 10. Which one of the following is the example of non-ferrous minerals? (a) Copper (b) Iron (c) Steel (d) None of these 11. Which of the following is the appropriate explanation of organic minerals? (a) Minerals which are originated from fossils. (b) Minerals which are originated from rocks (c) Minerals which are manmade (d) None of these 12. Which of the following is the example of inorganic minerals? (a) Limestone (b) Coal (c) Petroleum (d) None of these

7. Which of the river basins has highest amount of groundwater in India? (a) Ganga and Brahmaputra river basin (b) Krishna and Kaveri river basin (c) Damodar river basin (d) Son River basin

13. Which one of region in India is famous for large stocks of coal? (a) Valleys of Damodar (b) Ganga basin (c) Kaveri basin (d) None of these

8. Which of the following category of lands comes under common property resource? (a) Grazing lands (b) Non-telands

14. Which one of the following is the best quality coal? (a) Anthracite (b) Bituminous

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218 | Chapter 8 Resources (c) Peat (d) Lignite 15. Which types of coal has the largest share in total coal production in India? (a) Bituminous (b) Anthracite (c) Lignite (d) Peat 16. Which of the following is the first petroleum producing region of India? (a) Digboi, Assam (b) Mumbai high, Maharashtra (c) Ankleshwar, Gujarat (d) None of these 17. The process from which we can get useable nuclear energy is called: (a) Nuclear fission (b) Nuclear fusion (c) Both the (a) and (b) (d) None of these

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18. How many nuclear power plants are there in India? (a) 7 (b) 6 (c) 8 (d) 9 19. The term geothermal energy refers to: (a) Use of heat of earth’s core (b) Use of sun’s heat (c) Use of heat of nuclear power plant (d) None of these 20. Which of the following is the quality of non-conventional energy sources? (a) Renewable and environment friendly (b) Non-renewable and environment friendly (c) Limited in quantity (d) None of these

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CHAPTER

human Environment

LEARNING OBjECTIvES • Understand the various aspects of human environment • Know the spread of population across India with various associated aspects of population such as density and growth • Explore the various kinds of settlements • Become familiar about the different types of transportation in India • Understand the concept of migration and reasons of migration

INTRODUCTION Human environment is constituted by humans, their activities, and environmental features they have created for their convenience and comfortable life. How do they live, where do they live, their population, their mode of communication among themselves, and how they survive, all these questions are the matter of human environment. In this chapter, we will focus on certain aspects of human environment such as human settlements, migration, transportation, and population.

POPULATION When we think about the word population in the context of human beings, the few things that immediately come to our mind are people, specific geographical area, composition of different groups, density, distribution, and so on. These words have a very important role to define the status of population of a region, country, or continent. In this section, we will discuss about Indian population. India is the second most populous country of the world, and China being the first. However, as we are growing very fast in numbers, we will definitely snatch the crown of world’s most populous country from China. At present, according to 2011 census, the total population of India is 1,210,726,932. As mentioned earlier, if we want to understand population, we have to focus on its different traits such as distribution, density, growth, and composition. Hence, first we will start with the concept of distribution in the way to understand Indian population.

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220 | Chapter 9 Human Environment

Distribution of Population India has unequal distribution of population. Some states have very high population and some have very less. Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, and West Bengal are the highly populated states of India. States such as Sikkim, Jammu & Kashmir, Arunachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand have very small share of population of the total population of India. There are various reasons behind this unequal distribution in India. ‘Among the socioeconomic and historical factors of population distribution, the important ones are evolution of settled agriculture and agricultural development, pattern of human settlement, development of transport network, industrialisation, and urbanisation. It is observed that the regions falling under river plains and coastal areas of India POPULATION, 2011

Jammu & Kashmir 1, 25, 48, 926

Himachal Pradesh 68,56,509 Chandigarh 10,54,686 Uttarakhand 1,01,16,752 Haryana

Punjab 2,77,04,236

2,53,53,081

NCT of Delhi 1,67,53,235 Uttar Pradesh 19,95,81,477

Rajasthan 6,86,21,012

Bihar 10,38,04,637 Jharkhand 3,29,66,238

Gujarat 6,03,83,628

Arunachal Pradesh 13,82,611

Sikkim 6,07,688

Madhya Pradesh 7,25,97,565

West Bengal 9,13,47,736

Assam 3,11,69,272 Nagaland 19,80,602 Meghalaya 29,64,007 Manipur 27,21,756 Tripura 36,71,032 Mizoram 10,91,014

Chhattisgarh 2,55,40,196 Daman & Diu 2,42,911 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 3,42,853

Orissa 4,19,47,358

Maharashtra 11,23,72,972

AM AN

Goa 14,57,723

POPULATION

E E

Males

62,37,24,248

Females

58,64,69,174

3,79,944

Total Population 1,21,01,93,422

W D A A) H DI N (I

Kerala 3,33,87,677

P 12,44,464

Tamil Nadu 7,21,38,958

ICO D N

1 00 00 000 AND BELOW 1 00 00 001 - 2 50 00 000 2 50 00 001 - 5 00 00 000 5 00 00 001 - 10 00 00 000 10 00 00 001 AND ABOVE

Karnataka 6,11,30,704

64,429

AND

Andhra Pradesh 8,46,65,533

P-Puduch*erry

Figure 9.1 India distribution of population 2001

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Unit II Geography | 221 have remained the regions of high population concentration. Even though the uses of natural resources such as land and water in these regions have shown the sign of degradation, the concentration of population remains high because of an early history of human settlement and development of transport network. On the other hand, the urban regions of Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata Bangalore, Pune, Ahmadabad, Chennai, and Jaipur have high concentration of population due to industrial development and urbanisation drawing a large numbers of rural–urban migrants’. (NCERT textbook, Class 12, Geography, Chapter 1, Population, pp. 3) Ten highly populated states of India as per 2011 census are as follows: 1. Uttar Pradesh: 199,812,341 2. Maharashtra: 112,374,333 3. Bihar: 104,099,452 4. West Bengal: 91,276,115 5. Madhya Pradesh: 72,626,809 6. Tamil Nadu: 72,147,030 7. Rajasthan: 68,548,437 8. Karnataka: 61,095,297 9. Gujarat: 60,439,692 10. Andhra Pradesh: 49,386,799 Ten less populated states of India as per 2011 census are as follows: 1. Sikkim: 610,577 2. Mizoram: 1,097,206 3. Arunachal Pradesh: 1,383,727 4. Goa: 1,458,545 5. Nagaland: 1,978,502 6. Manipur: 2,721,756 7. Meghalaya: 2,966,889 8. Tripura: 3,673,917 9. Himachal Pradesh: 6,864,602 10. Uttarakhand: 10,086,292 Population of union territories of India as per 2011 census are as follows: 1. Delhi: 16,787,941 2. Puduch*erry: 1,247,953 3. Chandigarh: 1,055,450 4. Andaman and Nicobar Islands: 380,581 5. Dadra and Nagar Haveli: 343,709 6. Daman and Diu: 243,247 7. Lakshadweep: 64,473

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222 | Chapter 9 Human Environment

Density of Population Density of population means number of persons per unit area. According to 2011 census, the density of India’s population was 313 people per square km, but the estimated density of India’s population was 383 people per square km. Similar to distribution of population, density of population is also unequally distributed in India. There are few places in India where density of population is very high. Arunachal Pradesh, New Delhi, West Bengal, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh are the highest dense areas. On the other hand, there are some very low density areas such as Himachal Pradesh, Uttrakahand, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

68°

72°

76°

80°

84°

88°

96°

92°

INDIA

36°

Jammu & Kashmir 124

32°

Himachal Pradesh 123 Punjab 550 Haryana 573

28°

Chandigarh 9252

28°

NCT of Delhi 11297

Sikkim 86

Uttar Pradesh 828

Rajasthan 201

Assam 397

Bihar 1102

Meghalaya 132

24° Jharkhand 414

Gujarat 308

West Bengal 1029

Madhya Pradesh 236 Chhattisgarh 189

20°

Daman & Diu 2169

Tripura 350

Nagaland 119

Manipur 122

24°

Mizoram 52

Orissa 269

20°

Maharashtra 365

Dadra & Nagar Haveli 698

16°

Arunachal Pradesh 17

Andhra Pradesh 308

ARABIAN SEA

(P)

BAY OF BENGAL

16°

Goa 394 Andaman & Nicobar Islands 46

Karnataka 319 12°

(P) Lakshadweep 2013

Kerala 859

Tamil Nadu 555

(P)Puduch*erry 2598 (P)

500 Kilometres

INDIAN OCEAN

76°

12°

National average:382

8°

EAST OF GREENWICH

Barren I. (India)

Number of Persons, Per sq. km

100 50 0

72°

Narcondam I. (India)

80°

84°

8° Indira Point

88°

92°

Figure 9.2 India density of population 2001

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Unit II Geography | 223

Growth of Population Growth in population means positive change in the number of people living in a specific area. For measuring the growth in population, we have to decide any specific time period. ‘Population growth has two components, namely natural and induced. The natural growth is analysed by assessing the crude birth and death rates, whereas the induced components are explained by the volume of inward and outward movements of people in any given area’. (NCERT textbook, Class 12, Geography, Chapter 1, Population, pp. 5) The growth rate of Indian population is very high. We can understand it by seeing the map shown in Figure 9.3. TAJIKISTAN N

INDIA

AFGHANISTAN JAMMU & KASHMIR

DECADAL GROWTH RATE 2001 - 2011

HIMACHAL PRADESH

PAKISTAN

Chandigarh PUNJAB

CHINA (TIBET)

UTTARAKHAND

HARYANA

DELHI

L HA AC SH UN DE AR RA P

SIKKIM

PA L

BHUTAN

ASOM (ASSAM) NAGALAND

UTTAR PRADESH

RAJASTHAN

BIHAR

MEGHALAYA

JHARKHAND GUJARAT

WEST BENGAL

TRIPURA

MIZORAM

(ODISHA) ORISSA

HA TT

Diu

ISG

MADHYA PRADESH

MANIPUR

BANGLADESH

Daman

DADRA & NAGAR HAVELI

BAY OF BENGAL

MAHARASHTRA

Yanam (Puduch*erry)

ANDHRA PRADESH

ARABIAN SEA

MYANMAR

GOA LEGEND International Boundary

TAMIL NADU

Karaikal (Puduch*erry)

EEP DW SHA ) LAK (INDIA

State Boundary Puduch*erry

Mahe (puduch*erry)

Decadal growth less than 10 10-20 20-30 30 above

OCEAN

SRI I N D I A N LANKA

A A N ISL D AMAN & NIC O B A R (IN D I A)

KARNATAKA

Figure 9.3 India growth of population

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224 | Chapter 9 Human Environment

Composition of Indian Population Composition of Indian population is very diverse in nature. These are multiple religions, tribes, languages, ethnicities, and so on. If you want to understand the composition of Indian population, you have to analyse all different traits of Indian population such as age, sex, ethnicity, religion, language, marital status, literacy, occupation, and so on.

SETTLEMENTS Settlement in Geography is an important sub-branch of human geography. The group of houses built by the people to live can be called a settlement. To be considered as a settlement, the places where such houses are built must have an independent name. If small places where such houses are built do not have an independent name, then it is considered as a subpart of the big settlement, and such settlements are called hamlet. Sometimes the word settlement is used for the place having a specific geographical area and people may or may not live there. The settlements where people do not live are called uninhabited settlements. The human settlements are the result of human interactions with their environment. People build home for shelter and safety from wild animals, weather, and from other people. However, these alone do not make a settlement. Actually the settlements are the result of people’s cooperation and their ability to develop and use the available environmental resources. The settlements are developed with the development of human civilisation from hunting–gathering to agriculture, which demanded help of others and mutual cooperation. The area where the settlement extends is called its site. The settlements are dependent on some natural conditions such as climate, water availability, suitable land, and fertile soil. On the basis of their location, time of staying, and building features, the settlements can be classified as follows: 1. Rural settlement: The rural settlements are settlements whose residents are primarily engaged in the primary economic activities such as animal husbandry and agriculture. For these activities and for most of their requirements, the people mainly depend on the primary resources available in the local environment. Most of the rural settlements are smaller than the urban settlements. 2. Urban settlement: The urban settlements are relatively bigger and are thickly populated than the rural settlements. The economics and commercial activities of the urban settlements are complex and diverse. Most of the population of the urban settlements is engaged in the secondary activities or the service sector of the economics such as production, transportation, trade and commerce, and so on. The urban population is dependent on the rural population to fulfil its food and consumption products. 3. Temporary settlement: As the name itself specify, the temporary settlement is a place where human live for a relatively short period of time. This could be a result of staying for a particular purpose that may not exist after a specific time. For example, some communities,

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Unit II Geography | 225 who involve in hunting and gathering, build their homes in a jungle for a particular period of time to live safely during their stay, and this creates a temporary settlement. They can remove their shelter after the purpose is fulfilled, which could be killing and gathering of fishes, migratory birds, animals, seasonal fruits, woods, flowers, and so on. These kinds of settlements are in trend among the communities living in the jungle and practicing shifting cultivation, hunting and gathering, and so on. The geographical distribution spread in vast area and can vary from place to place such as desert will vary from jungles and jungles will vary from the poles. 4. Permanent settlement: The settlements where people live permanently are called permanent settlements. Unlike the temporary settlements, people live in these settlements for a long period of time. The permanent settlements design the nature of shelter like solid concrete buildings, and so on. The permanent settlement also requires some facilities to live life comfortably. The area where a permanent settlement exists is surrounded by facility providers such as markets, schools, institutions, hospitals, and so on to fulfil the daily requirement of the residents. The settlers are also required to travel from one place to another, so they need means of transportation and communication. 5. Clustered settlements: In this type of settlement, the houses of the people are found very close to one another. The limited supply of water, need for safety, fertile soil, unstable sociopolitical situations, and so on are the main causes of formation of this kind of settlements. The density of population of these settlements is generally high. This kind of settlements is found in India, China, Pakistan, and Middle East countries of Africa. 6. Scattered settlements: In this type of settlement, the houses are very far from each other, and the reasons of formation of this kind of settlements are opposite of the clustered settlements. The unlimited water availability, safety, large and fertile fields, and stable and peaceful sociopolitical situations are the main causes of existence of scattered settlements. This kind of settlements is found in North America, Australia, and some parts of Europe. 7. Segmented settlements: This kind of settlement shows the transition of the scattered and clustered settlements. This is formed by the grouping of many houses. The group of houses shares a similarity and there is a difference among them. They could be formed on the basis of same religion, language, cultural milieu, and so on.

TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION

Road Transport It is the most accessible and commonly used means of transport. However, its development is not equal all over the world. Surface and distribution of population plays a very vital role in the development of road transport. Now, in the present world, road transport not only confines with the local and national boundaries but also plays an important role in international and intercontinental transportation. Northern America and Europe has developed such kind of network.

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226 | Chapter 9 Human Environment These big ways have different names in many different countries, such as in India, Canada, and England, it known as highway; in Germany, it known as autobahn; in Italy, it is known as autos trod.

Train Transport Train transport is a very important part of land transportation. It is very useful for long distance transportation. The development of train transportation is the gift of industrialisation. The development of train transport is based on the surface conditions and distribution of population. In planes, it is very easy to develop a railway network, but in hills and high places, it becomes very tough to establish a network of train transportation. Although train transportation is developed in every part of world, the most important train networks are those that connect a nation to another nation or very long distant areas within a nation. The railways are developed after the roadways. The first railways were developed in England in 1835 and the first train ran between the Manchester and Liverpool, and its driver and builder was George Stephens himself. Most of the railways of the world are found in the Eastern Europe and Middle East of North America. USA has the longest rail route and India has the second longest railways in the world. Indian Railways network comprises 115,000 km of track over a route of 65,808 km of route with 7112 stations. In India, the first train ran between Mumbai to Thane in 1853. It was nationalised in the year 1951. About 32.8 per cent of the route of Indian railways is electrified. It is the world’s seventh largest utility employer with a population of 1.376 million employees. Some of the world’s famous train routes are as follows: • Trans-Siberian train railway route (Russia) • The Canadian: Toronto to Vancouver (Canada) • Shanghai to Lhasa (China) • California Zephyr: Emeryville (San Francisco) to Chicago • Indian Pacific: Sydney to Perth (Australia) • Vivek Express: Dibrugarh to Kanyakumari (India)

Water Transportation Although water transportation is considered as the slowest transportation, its low cost makes it a very important transportation for inter-country transportation. It can be divided into two main categories, namely inner water transportation and sea water transportation. Inner water transportation includes rivers, lakes, and canals. The importance and utility of these water routes depends on the depth, width, and amount of water of these routes. Some important water routes are as follows: • Amsterdam-Rhine, Netherlands, 45 mi, 1952 • Beaumont-Port Arthur, United States, 40 mi, 1916 • Canal du midi, France, 149 mi, 1692 • Houston, United States, 50 mi, 1914 • Nord-Ostsee-Kanal, Germany, 61.3 mi, 1895

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Unit II Geography | 227 • Panama, panama, 50.7 mi, 1914 • St. Lawrence Seaway, US and Canada, 2400 mi, 1959 • Suez, Egypt, 119.9 mi, 1869

MIGRATION The term migration basically refers to the movement of people to one place to another. The movement of people could have certain reasons related to their social life, economical condition, situation of war and conflict, and so on. We can divide migration into two different types. The first is international migration and the second is internal migration. Again, we can divide internal migration into various types such as rural area to urban area, urban area to urban area, and rural area to rural area. In the context of India, we can also add a type of migration which is called state migration. In this chapter, we will try to understand the concept and tradition of migration in India. ‘In the census of India, migration is enumerated on two bases: (i) place of birth, if the place of birth is different from the place of enumeration (known as life-time migrant); (ii) place of residence, if the place of last residence is different from the place of enumeration (known as migrant by place of last residence). Can you imagine the proportion of migrates in the population of India? As per 2001 census, out of 1029 million people in the country, 307 million (30 per cent) were reported as migrants by place of birth. However, this figure was 325 million (31 per cent) in case of place to last residence’. (NCERT textbook, Class 12, Geography, pp. 16) When we talk about internal migration in India, we can easily find many different streams of migration. We can divide these streams in two broader categories: first is intrastate migration and second is interstate migration. Both these categories have four types of migration steams such as the following: 1. Rural to rural: When people moved from one village to another. 2. Rural to urban: When people moved to city from village. 3. Urban to rural: When people moved to village from city. 4. Urban to urban: When people moved from one city to another.

Immigrants from Neighbouring Countries India is surrounded by almost seven countries. From some of these counties, India faces regular illegal intrusion. We can easily understand it by data given in Table 9.1. Table 9.1 Immigrants by last residence from neighbouring countries by all duration in India, 2001 Countries %

No. of immigrants

% of total immigrants

Total international migration

5,155,423

100

Migration from neighbouring countries 4,918,266

95.5

(contd)

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228 | Chapter 9 Human Environment Table 9.1 (Contd) Countries %

No. of immigrants

% of total immigrants

Afghanistan

9,194

0.2

Bangladesh

3,084,826

59.8

Bhutan

8,337

0.2

China

23,721

0.5

Myanmar

49,086

1.0

Nepal

596,696

11.6

Pakistan

997,106

19.3

Sri Lanka

149,300

2.9

Source: Census of India, 2001; NCERT textbook, Class 12, Geography, Chapter 2, Migration,pp. 18

Reasons for Migration There are multiple reasons of migration of people in India. Here are some important reasons of migration in India. 1. Work/employment: Work or employment is one of the most important reasons of migration. We can understand it by understanding industrial and infrastructural growth of India in the past few decades. If we investigate the last few decades of development in India, we can easily find that the last few decades’ development became centralised in very few regions of India. Jobs became bounded in specific cities. Hence, a person who needs an employment must come to a city such as Delhi, Mumbai, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata, and so on. Census 2001 clearly says that almost 38 per cent of total male migration in India is due to work or employment. 2. Business: Business is also an important reason of migration of people. However, this is a very limited type migration. If we talk about 2001 census, business migration only contributes 3 per cent of total male migration in India. 3. Education: Education is also the reason behind migration in India. According to 2001 census, it contributes almost 6 per cent in total male migration in India. 4. Marriage: Marriage is one of the very big reasons of female migration in India. According to 2001 census, it contributes almost 65 per cent in total female migration. 5. Natural disaster: Sometimes natural disasters such as earthquake, tsunami, flood, and drought become the reason of migration of people. These types of migration could be temporary or permanent or both. 6. Social exclusion: In some cases, social exclusion becomes the reason behind movement of a group of people from one place to another.

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Consequence of Migration There are some consequences of migration of large number of people. Cities become over crowded. Physical and social environment become pressurised. Over-exploitation of resources starts to fulfil the needs of population. The level of ground water drops down due to over depletion. Natural ecosystem of that place becomes affected badly.

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ Human environment is constituted by humans, their activities, and environmental features they have created for their convenience and comfortable life. ➨ Things such as people, a specific geographical area, composition of different groups, density, distribution, and so on are the important things that come to our mind with reference to population. ➨ At present, according to 2011 census, the total population of India is 1,210,726,932. ➨ India has unequal distribution of population. Some states have very high population and some have very less. Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, and West Bengal are the highly populated states of India. ➨ Density of population means number of persons per unit area. According to 2011 census, the density of India’s population was 313 people per square km. ➨ Multiple religions, tribes, languages, ethnicities, and so on are the composition of Indian population. ➨ The group of houses built by the people to live can be called a settlement. To be considered as a settlement, the places where such houses are built must have an independent name. ➨ The human settlements are the result of human interactions with their environment. ➨ The rural settlements are settlements whose residents are primarily engaged in the primary economic activities such as animal husbandry and agriculture. ➨ The urban settlements are relatively bigger and are thickly populated than the rural settlements. The economics and commercial activities of the urban settlements are complex and diverse. ➨ In clustered settlements, the houses of people are found very close to one another. ➨ The big ways have different names in many different countries, such as in India, Canada, and England, it known as highway; in Germany, it known as autobahn; in Italy, it is known as autos trod. ➨ The first railways were developed in England in 1835 and the first train ran between the Manchester and Liverpool, and its driver and builder was George Stephens himself. ➨ The term migration basically refers to the movement of people to one place to another. The movement of people could have certain reasons related to their social life, economical condition, situation of war and conflict, and so on. ➨ Work/employment, business, marriage, education, natural disaster, and social exclusion are some of the important reasons for migration in India.

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Check Your Progress 1. What do you understand by migration? Explain it in the context of India. 2. What do you understand by population distribution and density? Give your answer with appropriate examples. 3. What is the difference between migration and immigration? 4. What is the composition of population and population growth? Give you answer with appropriate examples.

5. What do you understand by settlement? Explain it with different types of settlements. 6. What is transportation? What are the different types of transportation? 7. What is water transport? What is the difference between internal and external water transport?

Objective Questions 1. Which one of the following is the main source of male migration in India? (a) Employment (b) Education (c) Marriage (d) Business 2. Which one of the following is the main source of female migration in India? (a) Marriage (b) Employment (c) Education (d) Natural disaster 3. Which one of the following is the consequence of over migration? (a) Over exploitation of resources (b) Lose of agriculture (c) Development of villages (d) None of these 4. According to 2001 census, which of the following country has the highest number of immigrants in India? (a) Bangladesh (b) Pakistan

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(c) Sri Lanka (d) Nepal 5. According to 2001 census, what is the percentage of total migrants in India by place of birth? (a) 30 per cent of total population (b) 20 per cent of total population (c) 25 per cent of total population (d) 15 per cent of total population 6. Which of the following canals is situated in Egypt? (a) Suez (b) Panama (c) Canal du midi (d) Nord-Ostsee-Kanal 7. The first rail ran between which cites? (a) Manchester and Liverpool (b) Mumbai to thane (c) Washington to new York (d) Paris to Berlin 8. Who was the driver of first rail? (a) George Stephenson (b) George Wilson

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Unit II Geography | 231 (c) Stephen George (d) John Hack 9. Which one of the following is the longest train route in the word? (a) Trans-Siberian route (b) Toronto to Vancouver (c) Shanghai to Lhasa (d) Dibrugarh to Kanyakumari 10. Which one of the following is the longest train route in India? (a) Dibrugarh to Kanyakumari (b) Jammu Tawi to Kanyakumari (c) Jammu to Thiruvananthapuram (d) Jammu to Ernakulam 11. Which one of the following is a characteristic of scattered settlements? (a) Houses are very far from each other (b) Houses are very near to each other (c) Houses build in groups (d) None of these 12. Which of the following best defines the segmented settlements? (a) Grouping of many houses (b) High density population (c) Houser are very far from each other (d) None of these 13. Which of the settlements has the quality of high density of population?

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Clustered settlements Scattered settlements Segmented settlements None of these

14. Which of the following is the least populated state of India? (a) Sikkim (b) Mizoram (c) Goa (d) Nagaland 15. Which of the following is the highest populated state of India? (a) Uttar Pradesh (b) Maharashtra (c) Bihar (d) West Bengal 16. Which of the following UT is least populated? (a) Lakshadweep (b) Daman and Diu (c) Dadra and Nagar Haveli (d) Puduch*erry 17. Which is the rate of density in India according to 2011 census? (a) 383 (b) 311 (c) 309 (d) 350

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Unit III

Social and Political Life

Chapter 1 Understanding Diversity Chapter 2 Government Chapter 3 Making a Living Chapter 4 Democracy Chapter 5 Understanding Media Chapter 6 Understanding Gender Perspective Chapter 7 The Constitution Chapter 8 Parliamentary Democracy Chapter 9 Social Justice and the Marginalised

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Social and Political Life: An Introduction MOVING FROM CIVICS TO SOCIAL POLITICAL LIFE It is important to know that the idea of Civics education has been shifted to the idea of social and political life. The reason for this shift and the nature of shift that has been taken place must be analysed. The shift must not have been done overnight; rather there must have been some specific reason behin d this change. The first argument is that Civics was the origination of colonial legacy, which has the main idea and objective to make people civilised based on a certain fixed pattern of perspective. There is another agreement associated with the content covered by Civics. It maintains that Civics simply describes government institutions and students were expected to internalise their roles and processes. However, the idea of criticality towards institutions and their work were not a part of Civics. Social and political life is a departure from this and certain crucial aspects have been added to the entire discourse. Some such aspects include critical thinking, reflective thinking, and so on. Social and political lives provide the space for reflection and understanding knowledge than mere rote learning. It also tries to relate the content with everyday experiences; however, the core ideas and concepts of political science are not addressed adequately. Here, it is important to understand that learners bring various perspectives to the class; while some perspectives are correct, others may have alternative conceptions. Both are important in a learner’s life to perceive the world. This is more important in a subject like social sciences where everything is related to the subjective social world. Therefore, when learners attend the formal education system, teachers must understand that they come with some ideas about the concepts they are going to learn.

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CHAPTER

Understanding Diversity

LEARNING ObjECTIVES • • • • •

Understand the concept of diversity Know various kinds of dimensions which constitute diversity Examine why diversity matters to us Elaborate upon the various kinds of discriminations, stereotypes, and biases Explore the various ways which facilitate our cognitive process to effectively deal with various inequalities

INTRODUCTION When we observe the world around us, we get to know about various kinds of differences and dissimilarities. In popular notion, we call these individual differences, but if we analyse the situation, we will be convinced that these are not differences; rather, these are uniqueness. These are also not only individual, rather, social as well and represent a larger group of people. Therefore, it is true that diversity provides positive strength. Further, we also have to understand how appropriate understanding of diversity will lead us toward unity in society, where everyone may be unique but will be united.

WHAT IS DIVERSITY We know that every individual perceives and reacts towards things in a unique manner, which differentiates a person from others. We can take examples of class VIII, where everyone is of the same age but their way of dealing with things, learning, and understanding is rather unique, which has been developed through the interaction with his/her social context. Diversity adds many aspects to our lives. We have friends from diverse cultures and become acquainted with their rituals, food, clothes, languages, and festivals. We participate in each other’s’ activities and enrich ourselves. Diversity is so vast that we can see and observe it in our immediate surroundings. This has been made possible by a multicultural social life and context. Diversity can be of many types and may be related to caste, class, gender, tribe, language, religion, culture, and so on. We need to understand the correct meaning of diversity that will lead

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238 | Chapter 1 Understanding Diversity us toward a heterogeneous society where mutual respect and acceptance will become a prime characteristic. Moreover, appropriate understanding of diversity will make people understand that it is not necessary that we all reach a mutual agreement and accept each other. We can also live in a peaceful society by understanding that it is not necessary that we agree with each other’s ways of lives. Having the same thought process and line of thought seems to be a dangerous idea in the diverse society. In such a situation, we will lose the charm of our social life.

UNDERSTANDING DIVERSITY IN INDIA India is known for its diverse culture. There are various kinds of differences with which we live. These differences exist in terms of our life style, food, clothes, languages, festivals, and other practices. Therefore, we all do similar things in different ways. In addition, we try to make sense of others’ practices to develop a peaceful society. It is essential to understand that innovations in technology and transportation have played a vital role in understanding diversities across the world. Transportation helped people move from one place to another and therefore, we see mixed culture at one place. It also helps people become familiar about other cultures. On the other hand, our places of livelihood are also diverse. People living in Rajasthan will be different from people living in Kashmir. People living in Kerala and Uttar Pradesh will also be different from each other in various manners. Their geographical conditions and situations shape their practices such as food, shelter, clothes, and so on, and these form their culture. Therefore, geographical condition is one of the important reasons for the existence of diversity. We can understand diversity in two examples taken from the NCERT text book of Social and Political Life (class VI). These examples are given in Box.

Ladakh is a desert in the mountainous terrain of the eastern part of Jammu and Kashmir. Very little agriculture is possible here since this region does not receive any rain and is covered in snow for most part of the year. There are very few trees that can grow in the region. People depend on melting snow for drinking water during the summer months. People rear sheep here; the sheep in this region are special because they produce the prized pashmina shawls. People in Ladakh carefully collect the wool of sheep and sell it to traders from Kashmir. Pashmina shawls are chiefly woven in Kashmir. People consume meat and milk products such as cheese and butter. Each family owns some goats, cows, and dzos (yak-cows). Although Ladakh is a desert, it attracted its share of traders. It was considered a good trade route as it had many passes through which caravans travelled to Tibet. These caravans carried textiles, spices, raw silk, and carpets. Buddhism reached Tibet through Ladakh. Ladakh is also called Little Tibet. Islam was introduced in this region more than 400 years ago and there is a significant Muslim population

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here. Ladakh has a very rich oral tradition of songs and poems. Local versions of the Tibetan national epic, the Kesar Saga, are performed and sung by both Muslims and Buddhists. Social and Political life (text book), Class VI, NCERT, Delhi (pp. 9)

Kerala is a state in the southwest corner of India. It is surrounded by the Arabian Sea on one side and hills on the other. Spices such as pepper, cloves, and cardamom are grown on the hills. Spices make this region an attractive place for traders. Jewish and Arab traders were the first to come to Kerala. The Apostle of Christ, St. Thomas, is believed to have come here nearly 2000 years ago and he is credited with bringing Christianity to India. Many Arab traders also came and settled down. Ibn Battuta, who travelled here a little less than 700 years ago, wrote a travelogue in which he described the lives of Muslims and says that they were a highly respected community. The Portuguese discovered the sea route to India from Europe when Vasco da Gama landed here. Due to these historical influences, Keralites practise different religions such as Judaism, Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism. The fishing nets used here look exactly like Chinese fishing nets and are called cheenavala. Even the utensil used for frying is called the cheenachatti, and it is believed that the word cheen could have come from China. The fertile land and climate are suited to growing rice and a majority of Keralites eat rice, fish, and vegetables. Social and Political life (text book), Class VI, NCERT, Delhi (pp. 10) Kerala and Ladakh are not only geographically different; rather, they share a different history. Our present is based on our past. We can conclude by saying that diversity is a term which, in its narrow sense, is used to differentiate people and groups from each other, but in its actual and broad sense, it talks and deals with respecting and appreciating each other without any bias or stereotypes such as caste, class, gender, religion, and so on. Diversity brings various people along to establish unity. Inclusion also needs to be discussed with diversity. Inclusion is termed as a process where understanding each other and valuing respecting others are the prime motto. It works to identify the needs of the individual and groups and accordingly facilitates their developmental processes. Therefore, the meaning of diversity is to have open ideas about various differences in culture and one’s way of perceiving any phenomenon. It also promotes harmony and collaborative spirit among people. People may have different goals and objectives but they work in collaboration and respect each other’s points of view. Therefore, diversity would include the following: • Respect different points of view and perspectives. • Participate even if there are differences in the perspectives, ways of doing work, and context.

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240 | Chapter 1 Understanding Diversity • Uniqueness in the way we perceive a profession or any other social concern. • Variety of life styles, ethnicity, sexual choice, citizenship, and nationality. • Fascination and openness towards integration of people belonging to different culture and therefore, be enriched with different experiences. • Heterogeneity, not hom*ogeneity, is an essential feature of diversity. Diversity provides changes, spaces, and opportunities to share experiences with each other. It is also important to mention that most people in today’s society accept diversity and see it as a positive and optimistic tool to develop a better society, which is heterogeneous and hom*ogeneous as well. Similarly, diversity may be negative or positive. Let us take an example of education; we do not know how diversity in education will work in a diversified society. We have to wait and watch its impact. Various studies have been conducted which prove that poor cohesion and unity or collaboration among castes, classes, races, gender, etc., has increased the problem in a diverse society like India and if these are not dealt with effectively, we may develop a society that does not develop the ability to understand the importance to co-existence and collaborative action. Therefore, particularly in education, it is essential to have a diverse classroom so that a wide range of experiences can be provided to learners in educational setting. Such diverse experiences provide them with opportunities to develop a broad and comprehensive perspective. This will provide understanding about accepting others and their differences. Continuous engagement with a diverse social context will develop an inclusive aptitude about social diversities and complexities. Diversity also leads towards curiosity. This means that every child will get a chance to become familiar with others. A child would want to know several aspects about others such as their way of living, food, and culture. This exploration will develop a positive perspective about diversity. It is important that students get familiar about all such aspects from the beginning of their education. This will not only prepare them to understand social diversity but will also equip them with tools to deal with it in a positive and constructive manner. It prepares learners to face the complexities of the real world and enhances their ability to deal with the world effectively and intelligently. Everyone has a unique ability but they become more effective when they club together. A school with diversity will always be beneficial and better because students learn more from others’ perspective and evaluate their own perspectives. It is important to understand that the society is diverse because humans live in the society and possess a diverse nature. People within a community or group are also diverse from each other as they understand and interpret their own culture as per their perspectives. Therefore, diversity is deeply rooted in every social context. There are research studies which claim that diversity creates problems in communication and many other kinds of processes. Such research believes that differences in attitude, belief, and perspective make people uncomfortable to interact with others. They tend to talk with people of the same group who have similar ideas and perspectives. In his study, Harry C. Triandis argued that opposite groups did not attract each other. However, a large number of people do not agree with this argument and argue that diversity also provides better space and chance for development. The activities and cultural practices they are involved in make

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them familiar and comfortable with others. This provides an attitude to work collaboratively and individually at the same time.

DOES DIVERSITY MATTER Diversity matters and there are many reasons for it. If we take an example of school and society, we can understand this better. Imagine the demographic profile of a school, where it is located, the kind of people that come to school to get educated, the teachers and other stakeholders of the school, etc. In collaboration, these elements create a school’s demographic profile. In such a way, a school becomes a place of exchange of cultural knowledge and practices. This provides a comprehensive space to all stakeholders of school. Therefore, the demographic profile of a school provides wide space to the learner. In this manner, diversity is something which acknowledges and accepts the similarities and differences among people. This acceptance surely provides space for new innovative practices, which at a larger level, changes the existing structure to a more progressive one. This progressive way develops and increases the strength of individuals to lead their own learning processes. Diversity also matters because of its social importance. It provides space to interact with people who do not have the same background and therefore have lived different experiences. Diversity also helps us to know our capability to understand and deal with ideas that are different from ours. It may include gender equality, diversity based on ethnicity, people with disability, sexual orientation (LGBT), and so on. It is also important to know and understand that diversity is nothing like ‘we and them’. It is more about ‘us.’ Therefore, the ‘we and them’ perspective does not work here. We can understand diversity in two ways. There is diversity that can be changed and diversity that cannot be changed. Dimensions which cannot be changed includes age, race, gender, and so on, and those which cannot be changed are salary, education, beliefs, etc. However, it is important to highlight here that there are melting points in social lives which provide different meanings to diversity. Melting point is a point where all cultures are mixed in a fashion and where there are no clear lines that can be defined. However, for better understanding, we can explain it in four broad categories, namely cognitive, affective, behavioural, and decision-making. Cognitive dimension deals with conceptual understanding about diversity. Affective dimension helps in understanding the differences and commonalties. Behavioural dimension develops optimistic and positive inter-personal relationships, and decision-making works towards ability to take decision in various situations. We are not born with diversity. We learn everything from the society we live in. We learn to walk, read, and talk after birth and every one does it differently. Therefore, our diverse education system will increase the possibilities of developing an egalitarian society and provide space to develop the following: • High self-esteem • High confidence

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242 | Chapter 1 Understanding Diversity • • • •

Acceptance of one’s own self and identity with reference to his/her own culture Ability to understand every one’s needs and working together Understating to learn the usefulness of interaction among various cultures Better citizenship for the nation and the world

Diversity provides more opinions and ideas because there are many people with different perspectives. It also develops a sense of concern as it helps to understand the situation of various groups or community.

DIVERSITY AND DISCRIMINATION In the first section of the chapter, you have studied the meaning of diversity in a comprehensive manner. An optimistic picture of diversity was presented. However, it may happen that people make fun of others on the basis of their caste, class, gender, background, etc. In such a situation, one person feels alienated and stagnated. Such persons also struggle for their existence. Discrimination is seen at many levels. It may be visible at home, in school, or in the society. Discrimination is based on biased, unfair, and prejudiced perspectives which do not have any logical or scientific reason. It is based on some preconceived notion about any person, community, system, or thinking. Such preconceived notion does not allow analysing the situation from all possible perspectives; rather, it works on the principle of linear thinking where one cannot expect diversion from the main line. On one hand, understanding prejudices is a very easy task but on the other hand, it is a very complicated, complex, and difficult process. It is easy because one can easily observe the discrimination happening on the bases of prejudices. It is difficult because it is inherited in everyday practice that people generally do not bother to analyse and simply follow it. The challenge is to make people aware and take them out from the very obvious situation to a situation which can be analysed. India is a diverse country. There are eight major religions in the world and each one of them is practised in India. ‘We have more than 1600 languages that are people’s mother tongues and there are more than a hundred dance forms.’ (Social and Political Life, Class VI, NCERT, pp. 13) We have already discussed that people would like to be associated with those having similar line of thought and interest than who have different line of thought. In India, we somehow failed to manage the importance of diversity and work more towards the discriminative line. To understand this discussion, we can take an example of rural and urban life. There are various perspectives about rural and urban lives prevailing without any authenticity. Some examples are rural people are more honest than urban people, urban people are more civilised then rural people, rural people are hardworking and urban people are lazy, rural people are dirty, whereas urban people are clean and hygienic, and so on. Such perspectives become the bases of prejudices about people and create discrimination between rural and urban people. However, we know that there is nothing universal about human behaviour. Therefore, we can say that prejudice is a way

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in which a person or a community is judged negatively to make them feel inferior. The Indian caste system and its practice is one of the strong and appropriate examples of this discrimination. Language is another such example. In India, English is considered more respected and powerful, whereas other languages are considered inferior. Theoretically, one may argue that the Constitution does not allow such discrimination but in practices, we also know that English hegemony has been created in all fields. In such situations, people who speak a language other than English are not only considered inferior; rather, they get less opportunity as against Englishspeaking people. In the same line, we can prejudice about gender, education, income, geographical location, living style, clothes, and so on.

UNDERSTANDING STEREOTYPES A stereotype is a way in which we provide a role to a person on the basis of preconceived notion about gender, caste, class, etc. It can be called a ‘picture in our hand.’ To understand it effectively, we can take the example of ‘gender.’ Before we discuss gender stereotypes, we must know and understand the meaning of gender discrimination, gender bias, and gender role identity. Gender discrimination is based on their being a boy or girl; gender bias happens when we prefer one gender over another, and gender role identity means when we cannot reverse the gender role. Gender role identity is the most dangerous for any society. It works on beliefs about characteristics and behaviour associated with one sex as opposed to another (Wooflolk, Anita (2006)). We are aware of the notion of gender discrimination and may take it for granted by saying that it is very natural that we are born as a boy or girl. It also legitimates certain biases, stereotypes, and discrimination such as girls speak softly, boys are rough and tough; girls are physically weak and boys are strong; and boys are good at mathematics and girls in singing in our lives. Generally, it seems obvious to many but it provides a specific role to boys and girls and socialises them accordingly. Doing so also provides a specific quality to a person either as a boy or a girl. Therefore, both boys and girls grow up with a specific role which they learn through socialisation and develop a sense of being a boy or a girl and perform the specific role in the society. Except gender, one can take many examples to explain the very idea of stereotype. An example can be taken of children with disability, which has now changed to children with special needs. People have various stereotypes about them as they cannot be intellectually bright, will be always dependent on others, and their self-esteem will be low than a normal person, and so on, think that as they need special care and attention, they are generally avoided in various outdoor activities such as educational excursions, and so on. Low confidence or low self-esteem is not a result of their disabilities; rather, it is because of the social treatment they receive at various places such as school, family, and society. Largely, stereotypes do not allow us to perceive individuals equally; rather, they provide a lens based on a preconceived notion which creates hurdles in looking everybody equally. It hinders the process of understanding uniqueness in a healthy way. It always perceives uniqueness in a

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244 | Chapter 1 Understanding Diversity form of discrimination. It also does not allow to see various unique categories, but develops less categories to make generalisations about particular human beings or communities.

DEALING WITH INEQUALITY The very concept of equality has evolved over a period of time. Today, it has a specific meaning and is evolving further. However, the meaning of equality and the use of this term has two different meanings altogether. We are equal as per the Constitution but actually, we are not. Inequality prevails everywhere. Prejudices, biases, discrimination, and stereotypes create spaces for inequality. Inequalities can also be based on region, religion, caste, social status, economic status, language, and so on. Some people face inequality because their culture is not valued like others. There is possibility that one may face many kinds of discrimination and inequalities, such as one can be poor as well as from a culture which is not valued by others. Discrimination and inequality are universal phenomena and one can find them across the world. One can easily see racial discrimination in Western countries. Therefore, discrimination and inequality may be of many kinds and take a society away from egalitarianism. Everyone works to earn livelihood. They may be teachers, engineers, peons, and sweepers. The society does not take these jobs in a very simple manner; rather, there is a ladder or a system which puts one at the top and others at the bottom. People at the top call themselves the upper caste and feel proud to be one and others are made to feel inferior and are labelled as lower caste. Discrimination based on caste works at an acute level where a person is discriminated in social, economic, and educational levels. They may not be allowed to sit with other students. They have to sit in a separate row or at the back. The experiences of Om Praksah Valmike in his book Jhoothan, where he shared his experiences as a Dalit in school are relevant here. People are prohibited from taking water from wells, prohibited to sit on benches on tea stalls, forced to use different cups for tea, etc. One can spot many such examples while observing discrimination and inequality. Dr Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar fought for equality of citizens throughout his life. He was a sufferer of discrimination. He is also known as the father of the Indian Constitution. Social discrimination reaches the root of the society. People feel insulted, rejected, exploited, and are not even considered human beings at some places. Inequality may also be seen in the family system, which is the highest hierarchical and the most accepted system, where every right is in the hands of the man and women have to seek permission to exercise their own rights. Women also face problems in families whether they are working or not. Read the following lines: • A well-educated person says I allowed my wife to become whatever she wants to be. • There is no difference between me and my wife, she always supports me, and votes for the same person as me.

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• I think teaching is a good profession for women. • The most important quality of my wife is that she is very tolerant but I am not. Now, focus on the bold-cum-italic words. Each word shows a different kind of hegemony of men over women, where every right is with women but men enjoy their power to allow women or seek consensus in voting, establishing teaching profession as the best profession for women, etc. Discriminatory analysis of these statements will help us understand that there is clear inequality in the relationship of men and women. Needless to say, this discrimination or inequality exists before birth and continues after death also, where there are different kinds of procedures to be followed while cremating men and women.

STRUGGLE FOR EQUALITY Inequality is part of every society and therefore, struggle for equality is also part of every society, whether it is situated in Asia, Africa, or Europe. India has also struggled for its freedom from the British. This struggle was two-fold—first, there was a struggle against the British and then, a struggle for equality of Dalits, women, and other marginalised communities. Women need not seek their identity with reference to men. Until women learn this, their existence will always be subject to approval of men. She has strength in her own way and should strive for them, rather comparing with men. It is also important to highlight here that creating opposition will not benefit women; rather, women have to find ways to develop their own strengths to make changes in their lives. The Constitution provides various kinds of rights to all people, so that equality can be exercised by all citizens. However, the very idea of liberalisation has again created a new kind of threat to the entire struggle for equality. The Government is gradually moving towards privatisation. Privatisation is making its presence felt in all sectors and has also included education in its trap. Increased privatisation is also the violation of the basic feature of the Indian constitution and the equality that we perceive is only an illusion.

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ The idea of Civics education has been shifted to the idea of social political life due to the following: ■ Civics was the origination of colonial legacy. ■ Civics simply describes government institutions which internalised their roles and processes. ➨ When we observe around us, we come to know of the various kinds of differences and dissimilarities. These are called individual differences but if we analyse the situation, we will be convinced that these are not differences, rather, these are uniqueness. ➨ Diversity adds many aspects to our lives. We make friends from diverse cultures and become familiar of their rituals, food, clothes, languages, and festivals.

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246 | Chapter 1 Understanding Diversity ➨ Diversity can be of many types and may be related to caste, class, gender, tribes, language, religion, culture, and so on. ➨ India is known for its diverse culture. There are various differences in our lives. These differences are seen in our life style, food, clothes, languages, festivals, and other practices. ➨ Our geographical condition also creates diversity. People living in Rajasthan will be different from the people living in Kashmir; people living in Kerala and Uttar Pradesh will also be different from each other in various manners. ➨ Diversity is a term, which in its narrow meaning, is used to differentiate people and groups from others, but in its actual and broad sense, it talks and deals with respecting and appreciating each other without any kind of biases or stereotypes such as caste, class, gender, religion, etc. Diversity brings various people together to establish unity. ➨ Therefore, diversity must include the following: ■ Respect different points of view and perspectives. ■ Participate even if there are differences in perspectives, ways of doing work, and contexts. ■ Uniqueness in the way we perceive a profession or any other social concern. ■ Variety of life styles, ethnicity, sexual choice, citizenship, and nationality. ■ Fascination and broadness of the integration of different people, with different culture, and therefore, different experiences. ■ Heterogeneity and not hom*ogeneity is an essential feature of diversity. This diversity provides changes, spaces, and opportunities to share experiences with each other. ➨ Diversity also leads to curiosity. This means that every child will get a chance to become familiar with others. ➨ Our society is diverse and it is important that a student gets familiar with all such aspects from the beginning of their education. ➨ Our diversified education system will increase the possibilities of developing an egalitarian society and provide space to develop the following: ■ High self-esteem ■ High confidence ■ Acceptance of one’s own self and identity with reference to his/her own culture ■ Ability to understand every one’s needs and working together ■ Understating to learn the usefulness of interaction among various cultures ■ Better citizenship for the nation and the world ➨ Discrimination can be seen at any level. It may be seen at home, in school, or in the society. Discrimination is based on biases, unfair, and prejudiced perspectives, which do not have any logical or scientific reason behind them. ➨ Gender discrimination is based on being a boy or a girl, gender bias happened when we prefer one gender over another, and gender role identity occurs when we cannot reverse the gender role.

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Check Your Progress 1. What do you mean by diversity? Discuss with reference to India with suitable examples. 2. Diversity works as strength for a nation. Do you agree/disagree with the statement? Elaborate with suitable examples. 3. How would you explain differences and uniqueness among individuals? Discuss with suitable examples. 4. How can you differentiate gender discrimination, gender bias, gender stereotype, and gender role identity? Elaborate with suitable examples from the Indian context. 5. Certain differences cannot be removed but many can be done. What are these differences? Answer the question with suitable examples.

6. How does liberalisation work against the notion of equality? Illustrate with appropriate examples. 7. Why do we call family a most accepted hierarchical system? Mention some examples and illustrate. 8. ‘I allowed my wife to become a successful lady; I never stopped her and always allowed her to do what so ever she wanted to do’. Discuss the given statement from gender inequality analysis. 9. Discuss with suitable examples how a diverse educational system will increase the possibilities of developing an egalitarian society.

Objective Questions 1. What do you mean by handling with diversity? (a) Dealing with conflicts among members (b) Developing inclusive environment (c) Providing space for individual development (d) All of these 2. What kind of diversity does a school manage? (a) Race (b) Culture (c) Language (d) All of these 3. Diversity management can be best explained as (a) understanding the similarity and differences among children.

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(b) removal of hinders within the school. (c) strengthen the school capability. (d) All of these 4. Three levels of diversity are (a) family, culture, and practical. (b) personal, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. (c) personal, social, and systematic. (d) All of these 5. ‘Picture in our hand’ represents: (a) Bias (b) Discrimination (c) Stereotype (d) Gender role identity 6. Prejudice can be explained by: (a) Sexism (b) Racism

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248 | Chapter 1 Understanding Diversity (c) Casteism (d) All of these 7. Secondary dimensions can be best represented by: (a) Occupation (b) Education (c) Geographical location (d) All of these 8. Gender discrimination can be best represented by: (a) Chairman (b) Chairperson (c) Learners (d) None of these 9. _______________ cannot be considered as disability. (a) Mental illness (b) Blindness (c) Physical (d) Perception 10. NCERT developed Social science text book according the guidelines of NCF 2015 and changed from Civics to Social and Political Life. One of the reasons behind this change was (a) civics does not describe the government institutions which were present to internalise their roles and processes.

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(b) civics is the origination of colonial legacy. (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) Neither (a) nor (b) 11. Geographical situation of Kerala can be best explained by which one of the following? (a) Southwest part of India and surrounded by sea on one side and hills on the other side (b) Southwest part of India and surrounded by sea from two side and hills on the other side (c) Southeast part of India and surrounded by sea from two side and hills on the other side (d) Southeast part of India and surrounded by sea on one side and hills on the other 12. Social division in India is based on: (a) Caste (b) Income (c) Education (d) Language

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CHAPTER

Government

LEaRNING ObJECTIVES • • • • • • •

Understand the concept of government Know various functions of government Become aware about various types of government Understand India as a democratic nation Engage with various levels of government Familiar about the position of president in India with associated function and powers Understand the union and state government with their functions and powers

INTRODUCTION It is difficult to define the term ‘Government’ with any fixed meaning, but people may define it in various ways. Generally, government can be understood as a process that is made up of legislators, executives, administrators, and so on to run and function as an existing system. It takes various kinds of decision from local to international level. At local level, we have local governments, and at national level, we have national government, but both are obligatory. At international level, we still do not have a good representative international government. In all countries, all works, from basic to higher level, are done by the government. Therefore, many institutions are required to do all these works. These institutions are in various forms. Based on these institutions, we have different forms of government. Various kinds of work are associated with government; therefore, it is difficult to provide a simple definition to the government. It is a kind of act and procedure of governing, where public policy is being controlled. It uses various authorities to fulfil many works. It has the responsibility of internal and external security, to generate better health facilities, and to prepare themselves and provide services at the time of natural disasters, such as earthquake, flood, etc. Along with these, there are many other works performed by the government, and it will be difficult to discuss all in this chapter alone here. The government can be understood as a system of rule, which makes a system functional. To make a system functional, government not only makes rules but also enforces them too. If a

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250 | Chapter 2 Government government makes any rules or laws, such as system of signals on roads, then it will also ensure people to follow it and those who do not follow will be punished. Therefore, it is essential for a government to make rules and enforce them. It is also important to mention that in democratic countries, rights are not only in the hand of government, people also have right against government. If one feels that wrong process has been used against him/her, they can take help from judiciary.

TYPES OF GOVERNMENT On the basis of power given to take decisions, make rules and laws, and enforce them, different types of government such as democracy, monarchy, aristocracy, dictatorship, republic, democratic republic, and so on can be defined. Democracy simply means a governing system where people rule. Actual power and authority reside in people. It may be of various kinds and two of them are direct and indirect. In direct democracy, people actually participate in decision-making process, and therefore, they become more responsible to follow those rules, whereas indirect or representative democracy is an altered version of direct democracy. Increasing population made the direct involvement or participation of people in decision–making process difficult. Therefore, they started electing people through election to make rules behalf of all population. In this form of democracy, people’s representatives are given power by people to govern them. India is considered as the largest democracy in the world. A monarchy system is governed by the rule of a king or queen (emperor). These belong to a family and generations keep continue ruling on the people. All the power resides with king/queen. They are not elected by people, that is, they do not get their power of ruling from people; rather they get it from family. Gradually, scenario has changed, and there is hardly pure monarch system exists in world. They changed and surrendered their power to the people’s elected members such as Britain. In an aristocracy system, rules are governed by aristocrats. Aristocrats are the people who are rich and educated. They were so powerful that they had good, strong, and powerful authority in monarch system. They actually rule the system by making laws, and such system is known as aristocracy. When rule is governed by one person of a group, it is known as dictatorship, but it is interesting to note that none of them accepts that they are dictators. It is important to highlight that across the world no country has given right to women and poor people easily. They had to struggle for their rights. ‘During the war, many men were away fighting, and because of this, women were called upon to do work that was earlier considered men’s work. Many women began organising and managing different kinds of work. When people saw this, they began to wonder why they had created so many unfair stereotypes about women and what they were capable of doing. So, women began to be seen as being equally capable of making decisions.

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The suffragettes demanded the right to vote for all women and to get their demands heard they chained themselves to railings in public places. Many suffragettes were imprisoned and went on hunger strikes and they had to be fed by force. American women got the right to vote in 1920 while women in the UK got to vote on the same terms as men some years later, in 1928’. (Social and Political Life, Class VI, NCERT pp. 32) Most of the countries in the world are now democratic. There may be different forms of democracy. Therefore, in the following sections, democracy is discussed in detail.

Democracy In simple terms, democracy is a governing system where decision-making power is in people’s hand or people elect member to take decision behalf of them. Universal adult franchise is one of the important features of democracy, where every persons above 18 years have right to vote. It works on the principle of individual rights and majority rules. It believes in decentralisation of power, so that everyone can play a significant role in governance. It also makes sure that various level of government should be approachable to all people. To break the hegemony, it has necessary condition of timely election, where power resides in people’s hand. Another prime characteristic of education is to protect human rights such as right to speech, right to practice religion, right to freedom, and right to equality. However, what actually a government manages to do is a different matter altogether. In the democratic system, majority govern the system. Or it can also be said that the governing power of democracy is with more than half of the people and that may be 51% or 100%. It is also known as popular sovereignty. However, what is important to keep in mind is that 51% does not mean that decision will always be correct. There is a possibility that 49% of people have to suffer for a wrong decision that has been taken by majority. Therefore, rationality and logicality become important need for successful democracy and education is must. Countries with lack of educated people face many difficulties to make a successful democracy. In a true democratic system, rights of people are preserved, and there will be no discrimination based on caste, class, gender, ethnicity, and so on. The protection of rights is ensured through written or unwritten constitution. In case of violence, one may acquire help from judiciary. Therefore, the majority rule and minority rights work simultaneously. Democratic governance is more suitable for plural society. A society with diversities has various and conflicting needs and interests. A democratic system will respect all such diversities. Therefore, it allows running many non-governmental systems. They are private, semi-government, and so on. Political equality is another important characteristic of a democratic country. Everyone is equal before law. Everyone is entitled for equal political rights such as right to vote. If we take an example of Indian democracy, it is federal in nature. Indian state is a state of unions (Article 1 Indian constitution), where states have their own agency, and in some matter, they are under central rule. A good democratic government provides spaces for opinion development about various crucial matters. People’s opinion is important for a successful democracy.

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252 | Chapter 2 Government Democracy provides individual and collective rights along with individual and collective responsibilities, and constitution and judiciary project them with rule of law. It is important to mention that judiciary work independent. Along with these features, another feature of democracy is its welfare nature. It does many welfare works for the society to provide them opportunities to use their rights and perform their responsibility.

Indian democracy It has been discussed that democracy is the best available option for better governance, where everyone participates and exercise their rights. We are also aware that it will be difficult to everyone directly participate in every governmental task in a country like India. Therefore, there is a provision for election (first election on adult franchise happened in 1952), which helps to choose the elected representatives to run the government. However, actually, from 1952 to 2016, the situation has not changed much, as there is poverty, illiteracy, etc., prevailing at its high level. Whatever change has happened is not satisfactory. Therefore, it is important to work on many areas to make a successful Indian democracy, such as elimination of poverty and spread literacy, a sense of responsibility in elected members, awareness in voters about how to choose the right candidate, making everyone capable to understand the value of one person one vote, visionary leaders, work against social and political evils, strengthening the process of public opinion process, working towards communal harmony and unity in diversity, developing healthy environment so that everyone can exercise their rights, and a powerful opposition. We have a federal form of government in India, where power is distributed between centre and states. The centre takes responsibility for parliament, whereas states are responsible for legislative assemblies of their respective states. This very nature of federal form has been declared in the constitution of India. Indian government can be understood with the help of three fundamental organs, namely executive, legislature, and judiciary (detailed discussions are provided in further chapters). These three organs have their different and specific roles to play. Indian democracy is sovereign, secular, and socialist. Although, since 1991, it has moved towards more liberal notion of democracy where more privatisation is favoured, social and economic independence and equality are favoured under its socialist nature. This also ensures the equality before law and equal opportunity along with equal social status. Secular nature provides equal respect and freedom to all religions, where states do not intervene until it is necessary to do so. India has parliamentary democracy, where head of the nation is president, who is elected, and therefore, India is also known as democratic and republic nation. The parliament is constituted with upper house (Rajya Sabha) and lower house (Lok Sabha) and the President. Members of both the houses are elected. As per constitution, all powers reside with the President, but the Prime Minister uses this power with the help of cabinet that he selects from the elected members and

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the President has to play a ceremonial role. As has already been discussed, the legislative powers are divided between centre and states, but in some cases, centre has upper hand. India is a democratic country since its independence. It is also an important point to remember that India is the largest democracy; therefore, there are many problems in front of its successful functioning. There are various challenges it has to face and resolve. These concerns are mainly caste, class, gender, religion, language, and so on. Along with this, India is also facing problems and challenges externally in the form of terrorism. In spite of the internal conflicts, entire India is united against this external threat.

LEVELS OF GOVERNMENT Government in India work broadly at three levels and these are central government, state government, and local level government.

Central Government Government at central level can be understood with reference to parliament (President, Lok Sabha, and Rajya Sabha) and Prime minister and their powers. At central level, now, we will consider each part of the government and try to understand it in detail.

The President The President is the first citizen of India. This position is not nominated rather it is elected. All the executive powers reside in the hand of the President. However, by practice and unsaid tradition, the President does not use his power by him/herself; rather the Prime Minister uses his power, who is elected by the people of India. Who can become President? The persons who have the following qualifications are eligible to become the president of India: 1. Person must be citizen of India. 2. Age should not be less than 35 years. 3. Person must have eligibility to become member of Lok Sabha. 4. Person cannot be on any government job either at centre, state, or local. (Government-benefited position does not include President, Vice President, centre and state ministers. The name of president must be nominated by 50 voters. Person has to deposit `15,000 as security deposit. Article 52 says that there will be a President in India. Article 54 talks about who will be participating in the election of the President. The President is elected by a group of people, which includes the elected members of both the houses of parliament and elected member of all the state assemblies. The President will be elected by the process of single vote transferable system. It is important to know that any dispute regarding election of president will be solved and investigated by Supreme Court of India and its decision will be final. The tenure of a president

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254 | Chapter 2 Government is minimum five years, but he/she can be elected again. Till now, Dr Rajendra Prasad is the only President who was elected two times. If any president wants to resign, he/she has to submit resignation to vice president. The President of India gets salary of `1,50,000 per month along with various immunities such as free house, telephone, water, and electricity. The President also gets office car and other facilities to perform his/her responsibilities. The President also gets pension of `9,00,000 per annum. Impeachment is the only process through which a president can be asked to leave the position. Impeachment process against president can be stated on the severe allegation such as violation of Indian constitution. After passing it from one house, it is to be sent to another house and that house investigates about the matter. The president or his representative presents his part to the house, and if the house finds the president to be guilty and passes the bill by two-third majority, then the president has to leave the position from that particular moment. Impeachment has not been used against any president of India till date. It is important to know that if the position of president is vacant, then the vice president will work as officiating president, and if he also fails in doing the role, then the Chief Justice of Supreme Court of India will work as Officiating President of India. The new or next election for president must happen within six months since the position is vacant.

Powers of the President The President of India has many powers such as executive powers, legislative powers, financial powers, judicial powers, military powers, diplomatic powers, and emergency powers. These powers of the President are discussed in detail as follows: 1. Executive power: According to the Article 53 of Indian Constitution, the President is the head of the executive. All union decisions are taken on his name. According to the Article 77, all the members of central government are appointed by President. There are various positions for which the president has power of appointing prime minter, council of minister, chief judge of India, judges of supreme and high courts, controller and auditor general of India, attorney general of India, governor, etc. The administration of union territories comes under the purview of President. The centre and state governance are carried out in the name of president. 2. Legislative power: President is the essential part of Indian parliament as parliament is constituted with Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, and President. President can send summon and prorogue to the parliament (both the houses). Once the prorogation is done, it is necessary to summon the houses within six months. President has power to dissolve the Lok Sabha. Rajya Sabha cannot be dissolved as it is the permanent house of the parliament. It is president’s responsibility to address both the houses after election. All the bills passed by both the houses of parliament need to be signed by the President and then they become Act. Certain bills can be presented in Lok Sabha with prior approval of the President, such as name of states, alteration of boundaries, money-related bills, restriction of any trade, and so on. The President can nominate

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two members in Lok Sabha and 12 members in Rajya Sabha, if he/she feels that there is lack of actual representation in either or both the houses. The nominated person must have excellency in any of the fields such as arts, science, literature, social science, and so on. 3. Judiciary power: The president of India has some significant judiciary power. It is important to know that president cannot be punished by any court. He has power of the appointments of the judges of the Supreme and high courts. President can remove a judge with consultation of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. He also has power to transfer the judges. The president also has power to forgive and pardon (Article 72), relieve, postpone, and substitute the sentence given to a person. However, he is free to use this power, and no one can force him to do so, but, what does it mean? Is the power absolute? The constitution does not say anything in this regard, but in practice, advice of council of ministers is taken by the president to take the final decision. Along with president, head of all the states can also exercise this power. The president can take advice from the Supreme Court about any issue that he feels crucial and Supreme Court has to provide it (Article 143). 4. Financial power: The President is also the financial head of India, and therefore, constitutionally, it is his responsibility to ensure financial stability in the nation. All the financial meters can be presented in Lok Sabha with prior approval of the president such as annual budget or any other bill that has financial implication. Without prior permission of the President, any financial bills cannot be introduced in the Parliament. President is also the head of Contingency Fund of India and he has power to dispose it. He can sanction money from this fund during unexpected situations. The power of appointing the Finance Commission of India resides with the President. 5. Emergency power: Article 352 provides power to the President to declare emergency if he feels that there is a threat of war or aggression by any external force. He can do in favour of India’s security. President has power to declare emergency in three situations, that is, national emergency, state emergency, and financial emergency. National emergency can be declared in the situation of war and/or any kind of external threat to the nation. However, it is important to know that President declares national emergency only on the request done by Prime Minister. The Prime Minister also takes consultation with cabinet ministers in this regard. After emergency is declared, it must be approved by Parliament within one month of it declaration. Emergency can be approved only for six months in one go but can be extended after every six months for the maximum of three years. Fundamental rights get automatically suspended during national emergency except right to life and personal liberty. Such kind of national emergency has been declared three times in India, first, during India–China war (1962); second, during India–Pakistan war (1971), and third, by Indira Gandhi in 1975–1977. Indira Gandhi justified on account of international disturbance. The state emergency can be declared because of two reasons. First, if a state fails to run governance according to constitution (Article 356) and second, if a state violates the instruction given by union government (Article 365). State emergency also need to be

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256 | Chapter 2 Government approved by Parliament within two months. It can also be extended up to three years through approval after every six months. However, in case of Kashmir and Punjab, time can be increased more than three years by constitutional amendment. During state emergency, all the power comes to governor’s hand and he runs the government in the name of President. The state assemblies get dissolved and all money matters are approved by the Parliament. According to Article 360 of constitution, the President has power to declare financial emergency. This emergency can be declared if there is financial crisis in front of the nation or there is situation of financial instability. This form of emergency also needs to be approved by Parliament within two months. Financial emergency has never been declared in India so far. 6. Diplomatic power: The President enjoys many diplomatic powers. Decisions taken by Parliament about any international treaties and contracts are done in the name of President. Every nation has international relationships and so India has. The president has power to represent India at various international forms. He also has power to appoint and send diplomats such as ambassadors to other countries. 7. Military power: The President of India has power related to national military. President is known as the supreme commander of Indian defence forces. After approval from Parliament, President can declare state of war and state of peace. The chiefs of various defence forces such as Army, Navy, and Air Force are appointed by the President. 8. Veto power: It is important to know that even after considering Indian President as a rubber stamp; sometimes he has lot in his hand to exercise. he has lot in his hand to exercise. Veto power is one of them. He can assent and withhold a bill. He has power to use veto. He has three veto powers, namely absolute veto, suspensive veto, and pocket veto. Absolute veto is used by President when there is a need to reject the bill. However, this cannot be done with money bill. When President sends a bill back to parliament for reconsideration, he uses his suspensive veto. However, if parliament passes that bill again without any change, President has to pass the bill. It means that he can only delay such bill but cannot stop them. The pocket veto is very powerful. The president has power to keep a bill pending with him for indefinite time. The constitution of India has not fixed this time, and therefore, he can keep any bill pending except money bill such as budget.

Lok Sabha Lok Sabha is the lower house of the parliament, which represents Indian people, because this house is constituted on the basis of direct election. It is the powerful house in comparison with the upper house (Rajya Sabha). Lok Sabha can have maximum 552 member in total out of which up to 530 come from states and 20 from the union territories. Two people can be nominated by president from Anglo-Indian community. After becoming aware about the composition of Lok Sabha, it is important to know how these members are elected. First, we must know that these members are elected by universal

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Table 2.1 Number of seats in Lok Sabha S.No. State, Union Territories and President Number of Seats 1

Andhra Pradesh

Arunachal Pradesh

Assam

Bihar

Chhattisgarh

Goa

Gujarat

Haryana

Himachal Pradesh

Jammu & Kashmir

Jharkhand

Karnataka

Kerala

Madhya Pradesh

Maharashtra

Manipur

Meghalaya

Mizoram

Nagaland

Orissa

Punjab

Rajasthan

Sikkim

Tamil Nadu

Tripura

Uttar Pradesh

Uttarakhand

West Bengal

Andaman & Nicobar Islands (UT)

Chandigarh (UT)

Dadra & Nagar Haveli (UT)

Daman & Diu (UT)

Delhi (UT)

Lakshadweep (UT)

Pondicherry (UT)

Anglo-Indians by President (Article 331)

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1 39 2 80

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258 | Chapter 2 Government adult franchise, where all citizens of 18 years old are eligible to vote, but, his/her name must be included in the voters list. There are a few constituencies reserved for SC and ST candidates from there they can contest the election and get elected. As per the required number of members in Lok Sabha, whole country is divided into many constituencies and one member of parliament will be elected from each constituency. Secret ballot is used for election where no one knows to whom one has casted their vote. Nowadays, electronic voting machines are used for election. Members of Lok Sabha represent people of their constituency. A member who receives maximum number of vote is declared elected and become member of Lok Sabha. It means simple majority vote system is used for these selections. Who can contest the Lok Sabha election is an important question to be discussed. The person who has the following qualifications can contest the election: 1. S/he should be a citizen of India. 2. S/he should not be less than 25 years. 3. S/he should not be on any profit job under government. 4. S/he should not be ill minded and bankrupt. 5. S/he should not be declared criminal by any court in India. 6. S/he should meet any other qualifications declared by the Parliament.

Tenure of Lok Sabha Tenure of Lok Sabha is for five years in normal circ*mstances, but in special situations, it can be extended for one year. Special situation here means emergency. However, it is mandatory to conduct fresh election within six months of declaration of emergency. President can also dissolve Lok Sabha on the advice of Prime Minister; here also, Lok Sabha needs to be re-elected within six months from the dissolved time. The president has power to call session of parliament any time. Generally, there are two sessions every year. There should not be gap of more than six months between two sessions. To hold a meeting, minimum quorum should be 1/10. Due to lack of quorum, the Speaker can adjourn the session. It is important to know that the Speaker is the Chairperson of the Lok Sabha. His work is to organise the session neutrally. Members of Lok Sabha enjoy many privileges, such as they are free to express their views in Lok Sabha without any fear. No legal process can be taken up against them for this. They cannot be arrested or detained before and after forty days of the session.

Powers of Lok Sabha The various powers of the Lok Sabha are as follows: 1. Legislative powers: Lok Sabha is the lower house and the powerful house of the Parliament. Any ordinary bill can be presented in either Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha. However, actually

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majority of bills are introduced in Lok Sabha and all the financial bills are presented only in Lok Sabha. Once a bill is passed from Lok Sabha, it is sent to Rajya Sabha and when both houses pass the bill, it is sent to President for approval. After President’s approval, it becomes a law. In deadlock situation, if Lok Sabha passes a bill, but Rajya Sabha is not ready to pass it, then the President can call for a joint meeting of both the houses to resolve the issue, and the decision taken is mandatory for both the houses. As more members of Lok Sabha will be participating in this meeting, majority of time, the decision goes in favour of Lok Sabha. 2. Executive powers: All the ministers of the council take collective responsibility in Lok Sabha. Prime Minister is the leader of the majority. Ministry can be dissolved by Lok Sabha by passing no-confidence motion against them. Therefore, the swim and sink of ministers depends upon Lok Sabha. The members of parliament has right to ask question to the ministers about their work, polices, tasks, action, and so on. Members of parliament have right to criticise ministers and their work. They have full right to accept or reject the bills introduced by ministers in Lok Sabha. It is important to know that if Lok Sabha refuses to accept the cabinet decision or rejects the proposed budget or passes a no-confidence bill against a minister, then it will be taken as no-confidence bill against the entire Council of Ministers and all of them have to resign. 3. Financial powers: Lok Sabha has many financial functions to do and therefore have many financial powers also. Unlike ordinary bill, financial bill can only be introduced in Lok Sabha. After it passes from here, it is sent to Rajya Sabha. Rajya Sabha can delay this bill for a maximum of 14 days and not less than that. After this, it will be considered as passed, whether accepted by Rajya Sabha or not. However, if disputes arises, then that particular bill whether money bill or not will be decided by the Speaker of Lok Sabha. The Speaker’s decision is final and cannot be challenged. It indicates that financial control of the nation is in the hand of Lok Sabha. All the taxes can be created, collected, changed, or discontinued only after the approval of Lok Sabha. 4. Judicial powers: Lok Sabha has some judicial powers also. Impeachment process against President can be introduced either in Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha and passed by both the houses with two-third majority. Charges against Vice President are also heard in Lok Sabha. Judges of Supreme Court or High Courts can be removed by resolution passed by Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. Lok Sabha can also pass resolution to remove the officers like Attorney General, the Chief Election Commission, etc. 5. Electoral powers: Lok Sabha participates in the election of the President. The Vice President is elected by the members of both houses. The Speaker and Deputy Speaker are elected by Lok Sabha within the members of Lok Sabha.

Rajya Sabha Rajya Sabha is known as Council of States. The scope of second chamber was created by the Act of 1919, but actually it came to existence in 1920. After many debates, it was decided that India

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260 | Chapter 2 Government is a state with diversity, and therefore, only single-elected house may not be a very good idea, and hence, a second chamber was created. The maximum number of members in Rajya Sabha could be 250 in which 12 members are nominated by the President and 238 members represent various states and union territories. Nominated members must have good contribution in the field of arts, science, social science, technology, etc. The Forth Schedule of the constitution talked about allocation of seats to the states and union territories for the Rajya Sabha. Population is the criteria of allocation of seats. Who is eligible to be a member of Rajya Sabha is an important point to be discussed here. A person has to have some qualification to become a member of Rajya Sabha. Person should be citizen of India and cross 30 years of life. He/she should also fulfil the other requirements decided by the Parliament. He/she should not be mentally ill and should not have any government profit job. A person selected as a member of Rajya Sabha cannot join any political party, and if he/she wants to do, it should have been done within six months of becoming member in the Rajya Sabha.

Election Members of Rajya Sabha are elected by indirect election, which represent different states and two union territories. These members are elected by the elected members of legislative assembly of the concern state. The member representatives of union territories are elected by Electoral College of that union territory. It is important to know that Rajya Sabha is a permanent house and does not get dissolved. One-third members of the house leave their posts after every second year. If a member leaves the post before completing two years, a process of by-election takes place. The newly elected member will be in office only till the remaining time of the earlier member who left the seat (whatever reason) in between. The Vice President is the Ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha. Members of Rajya Sabha select one Deputy Chairman. There is a provision of Vice Chairman in Rajya Sabha, who will become active in absence of Chairman and Deputy Chairman.

Powers of Rajya Sabha Rajya Sabha is the upper house of Indian parliament. It is also important to know that India governs on federal system; therefore, the legislative powers are divided into three lists, namely union list, state list, and concurrent list. In normal situation, Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha do not enter in each other sphere. However, if Rajya Sabha thinks that some matters are important and need immediate action, it can empower Parliament to take up state list issue by passing a bill with twothird of its present members who participate in voting. 1. Legislative power: This house has some legislative powers too. Any ordinary bill can be presented in either of the houses but should be passed from both the houses, and after it is signed by the President, it becomes an Act. In the situation of deadlock between

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both houses, a joint meeting is called by President to resolve the deadlock. However, it is also important to know that Rajya Sabha can delay the bill, but at the end, it cannot stop the bill to be passed, but this delay provides enough time to think about the passed bill. 2. Financial powers: It has been discussed earlier that money bill can only be introduced in Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha cannot stop this bill more than 14 days, and after 14 days, the bill will be considered as passed. Rajya Sabha does not have power to do amendment in money bills. Lok Sabha may accept or reject the suggestions given by Rajya Sabha. Therefore, it is necessary to put a bill before Rajya Sabha, but Rajya Sabha has very little power about money-related bills.

Combined functions of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha There are various functions which Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha do collectively, such as changes in the state boundaries or the names of any state, approval of the ordinances declared by the President, any changes in the power of Supreme Court and High Court, qualification changes of the Parliament and State legislature members, changes in salaries and other allowances of the member of Parliament, and approval for the declaration of emergency.

State Government India has federal form of governing system, where there are three levels of government: central, states, and union territories. There are panchayats in villages, whereas urban areas have municipal corporations. In hierarchy, state government comes under central government. Every state has a state government for governance. We have 29 state governments that are governed by chief ministers and governors. Council of ministers is headed by chief ministers of the respective states. The complete structure of state government can be understood with it executive, judiciary, and legislative organs. The governor, chief minister, and ministers in a council collectively represent executive. Governors are appointed by the President for five years. The chief minister of the state uses all the power in the name of governor, same as it happens in central where all the power of the President is used by Prime Minister. Judiciary is responsible to justice in state. The judiciary in state is headed by Chief Justice. The legislature in state has two parts or divisions, namely Vidhan Parishad (legislative council) and Vidhan Sabha (legislative assembly). Total member in legislative council cannot be more than one-third of total member of legislative assembly. These elected members are named as MLC (Member of Legislative Council). Similarly, legislative assembly cannot have members more than 500 and less than 60. It is important to note that Sikkim is an exception; here, it has only 32 members in its legislative assembly. These seats are fixed in all the states, but they are different in number of seats allotted to each state. Elected members are called member of legislative assembly (MLA).

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Powers of state government State government has many powers in its hand. Broadly, these are executive, legislative, financial, and discretionary powers. All the executive power resides in governor of that state. The chief minister is appointed by governor, who uses all the executive power in the name of governor. Chief Minister also consults with council of ministers and the council of minister remains in office on the pleasure of governor but actually governor is only a declaring authority, in reality Vidhan Sabha uses this power. Governor also appoints Advocate General and judges of High Court. The welfare schemes of SCs and STs are taken care by the governor. It is his choice to appoint a minister for this or do it by him/herself. All the decisions taken by the council of minister is to be known by governor. It is important to note that governor does not enjoy diplomatic and military power like the President. The various powers of a governor are as follows: 1. Legislative power: As said earlier, as a governor can form the council of ministers, he/she can also dissolve it. It is important to know that this is a formal power in governor’s hand; actually, it happened on the advice of council of ministers. Every year, first session of legislature is addressed by the governor. The bills passed by state legislature become law after it is signed by the governor. Governor may send a bill back to legislature for reconsideration. However, in case of money bill, it is not permissible. But governor has power to keep some bills pending for President. Governor can also promulgate ordinance in case of absence of legislature and there is an urgent need for a law. These ordinances will be effective not more than six weeks from the new legislative announced. These need to be approved by legislature. Article 192 provides power to governor to disqualify the members of house of the state legislature. 2. Financial powers: There are some financial powers in governor’s hand. All the moneyrelated bills can be introduced only with the prior permission of the governor. Governor presents yearly budget in legislature. All the taxes, expenditure etc. cannot be used without governor’s approval. 3. Judicial power: Governor has power to provide pardon or decrease the level of punishment. Governor can also change one kind of sentence into other kinds. Governor also appoints the judges of High Court in state. Governors of some states use some discretionary powers also such as the governor of Assam who can use some powers related to tribal welfare, independent from ministry.

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ Government can be understood as a process that is made up of legislator, executives, administrator, and so on to run and function as an existing system. It takes various kinds of decision from local to international level. ➨ Democracy simply means a governing system where people rule. Actual power and authority reside in people.

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➨ A monarchy system is governed by the rule of a king or queen (emperor). These belong to a family and generations keep continue ruling the people. ➨ In an aristocracy, rules are governed by aristocrats. Aristocrats are the people who are rich and educated. ➨ Indian government can be understood with the help of three fundamental organs, namely executive, legislature, and judiciary. These three organs have their different and specific roles to play. Indian democracy is sovereign, secular, and socialist. ➨ India has parliamentary democracy, where head of the nation is president, who is elected, and therefore, India is also known as democratic and republic nation. ➨ Government in India work broadly at three levels and these are central government, state government, and local level government. ➨ Government at centre level can be understood with reference to parliament (President, Lok Sabha, and Rajya Sabha) and Prime minister and their powers. ➨ All the executive powers reside in the hand of the President. However, by practice and unsaid tradition, the President does not use his power by him/herself; rather the Prime Minister uses his power, who is elected by people of India. ➨ The president of India has many powers such as executive powers, legislative powers, financial powers, judicial powers, military powers, diplomatic powers, and emergency powers. ➨ President can use his emergency power under Articles 352, 356, and 360 of Indian Constitution. ➨ Lok Sabha is the lower house of Indian parliament, which represents Indian people, because this house is constituted on the basis of direct election. ➨ Rajya Sabha is the upper house of Indian parliament. ➨ India governs on federal system; therefore, the legislative powers are divided into three lists, namely union list, state list, and concurrent list. ➨ The complete structure of state government can be understood with it executive, judiciary, and legislative organs. ➨ The governor, chief minister, and ministers in a council collectively represent executive. ➨ The legislature in state has two parts or divisions, namely Vidhan Parishad (legislative council) and Vidhan Sabha (legislative assembly).

Check Your Progress 1. What do you understand by the term ‘Government’? Discuss the various functions of a government. 2. What are various types of government and on what basis we do this classification? Discuss with suitable examples.

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3. On what basis you can say that India is a democratic nation? Discuss some of the challenges Indian democracy currently facing and how these can be handled. 4. What is the election process of the President of India? Discuss the legislative,

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264 | Chapter 2 Government executive, and financial power of Indian President. 5. What are the kinds of emergency power Indian President have? Illustrate with suitable examples. 6. Discuss the composition of Lok Sabha. What are it legislative, executive, and financial powers?

7. Rajya Sabha has lesser power than Lok Sabha, yet has great role to play in Indian Parliamentary System. Discuss the given statement with suitable examples. 8. What do you understand by state government? What are its various powers?

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS 1. ___________ is the minimum age eligibility for president. (a) 35 (b) 18 (c) 21 (d) 30 2. _____________ is known as head of the state. (a) President (b) Prime Minister (c) Chief Minister (d) Chief Justice of Supreme Court of India 3. All the executive function of the state is done in the name of: (a) Prime Minister (b) President (c) Both (a) and (b). (d) None of these 4. Who does not take part in President election? (a) Only elected member of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha (b) Elected members of state legislative assembly (c) Elected members of legislative assemblies of Delhi and Pondicherry

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(d) Both elected and nominated members of the State legislative council. All the members of state legislative council 5. Money bills (a) cannot be presented with prior permission of President. (b) can be introduced in either Rajya Sabha or Lok Sabha, but both the houses must pass it. (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) Neither (a) nor (b) 6. The veto power of President means: (a) Forbid (b) Double (c) Decide (d) Support 7. The President has: (a) Pocket veto (b) Absolute veto (c) Suspensive veto (d) Qualified veto 8. The President of India has power of promulgate ordinances under which of the following Article: (a) Article 52

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Unit III (b) Article 123 (c) Article 78 (d) Article 25 9. Name the President who got elected two times. (a) Dr Zakir Hussain (b) Dr Rajendra Prasad (c) Dr A.P.J. Abdul Kalam (d) Ms Pratibha Patil 10. ‘Remission’ with reference to power of president means (a) duration of the punishment shortened. (b) because of some unexpected problem like disability, the originally granted sentence is changed in lesser sentence (c) reduce harder punishment into lighter form (d) dismiss the sentence 11. The union minsters are responsible to: (a) Prime Minister (b) President (c) Lok Sabha (d) Both Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha 12. Supreme Court Judges can be asked to leave the office by: (a) Parliament (b) President (c) Chief Justice of India (d) Prime Minister 13. The age of a Lok Sabha member must be minimum of: (a) 25 years (b) 21 years (c) 18 years (d) 30 years

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14. Who elects Rajya Sabha members? (a) Member of Lok Sabha (b) The people of India (c) Elected members of the legislative assembly (d) Elected member of the legislative council 15. In which situation, President addresses the houses of Parliament? (a) All the sessions (b) During emergency (c) Every first session after election (d) None of these 16. The president has power to dissolve the Lok Sabha when: (a) Prime Minister advices (b) Chief Ministers advices (c) Lok Sabha suggests (d) Rajya Sabha suggests 17. The term of Rajya Sabha is: (a) Five years (b) Six years (c) Decided by legislative (d) None of these 18. How many houses are there in the Indian Parliament? (a) 4 (b) 2 (c) 5 (d) None of these 19. Rajya Sabha is also known as: (a) Parliament (b) People’s house (c) Upper house (d) None of these

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266 | Chapter 2 Government 20. Lok Sabha is known as: (a) House of people (b) Council of states (c) Parliament (d) All of these 21. There are _______ members in Rajya Sabha. (a) 250 (b) 245 (c) 219 (d) 238

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22. _________, __________, and ___________ make Parliament. (a) Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, President (b) Lok Sabha, Prime Minister, Rajya Sabha (c) Vice President, Rajya Sabha, Vidhan Sabha (d) None of these 23. Parliament starts with: (a) Zero hour (b) Question hour (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these

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CHAPTER

Making a Living

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • • • •

Understand the idea of livelihood Explore the concepts of rural and urban livelihood Explore the market around us Critically review the market with reference to equality

INTRODUCTION Livelihood is one of the most important economic activities in any country. In a developing economy like India, agriculture constitutes an extremely important aspect of the country’s GDP. It increases economic activities, flow of money, and generates employment in the economy. India is an agriculture-based economy. About 60% of our population is employed in the agricultural sector or related fields such as fishing, foresting, poultry, or cattle rearing. A large portion of our village population is heavily dependent on agriculture.

LIVELIHOOD On the basis of demography and economics, the livelihoods in Indian society can be divided into two major sectors: 1. Rural livelihood 2. Urban livelihood Rural livelihood forms a major part of the Indian economy. It is not only the largest sector but also accommodates the majority population of the country. However, as other sectors, this sector also has its own problems and disadvantages. The rural population is mainly employed in crop-related activities. Other activities in the rural sector include small-scale industries, handicrafts, and other vocations. Let us take a small illustration from Kalpattu village in Tamil Nadu, that is close to the sea coast. Other than farming, the villagers are involved in small industries such as making baskets, pots, bricks, bullock-carts, and so on. Professionals who provide essential services to the village such as blacksmiths, nurses, teachers, washer men, mechanics, and so on are also present.

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268 | Chapter 3 Making a Living There are also people who are involved in providing food such as idli, dosa, and upma in the mornings. As every geographical area has its own crops, this village has paddy as its main crop. Most families in the village earn their livelihood through agriculture. Poor and landless labourers in the rural areas often spend a lot of time every day collecting firewood from the forest, getting water, and grazing their cattle. The labourers do not earn any money from these activities but they do them for the household. The family needs to spend time doing such work as they are not able to survive on the little money they earn. Nearly two-fifths of all rural families are agricultural labourers in our country. Some own small plots of land, whereas others are still landless. In times of difficulties and medical emergencies, the landless families have to borrow money from moneylenders in the village. The moneylenders take undue advantage of their condition and exploit them for their selfish ends. Sometimes, villagers have to sell their cattle to pay back their loans. As crops are grown in a particular season, the landless families are not able to earn money throughout the year. Often, they have to travel long distances in search of work. This travel or migration takes place during particular seasons when they do not get any work in the agricultural sector.

On Being in Debt It is often said that Indian agriculture is a gamble. Whether you earn or not, it is decided by the nature. Many a time, when there is not enough rain, crops can also be ruined. Consequently, farmers are unable to pay back their loans. They may even have to borrow money to help their families survive. Soon, the loan becomes so large that no matter what they earn, they are unable to repay and the deplorable condition of Indian farmers persists. On the basis of the aforementioned account, we observe that there are three categories of farmers in India as explained below: 1. Landless labourers: This category of farmers constitutes 20% of India’s total farming population. They depend on the work they do on other people’s fields to earn a living. Many of them are landless and others may own very small plots of land. 2. Small farmers: In case of small farmers, the land is barely enough to meet their needs. In India, 80% of the farmers belong to this group. They lead a very hard and vulnerable life. 3. Big farmers: Big farmers constitute the rest, that is, 20%, of India’s farming class. They cultivate most of the land in the villages. A large part of their produce is sold in the market. Many of them have started other businesses such as shops, moneylending, trading, small factories, and so on. Therefore, it can be understood that a majority of the country’s farmers are quite poor.

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RURAL LIVELIHOODS We have discussed how people in rural areas earn their living in various ways. Some work on farms, whereas others earn their living on non-farm activities. Working on farms involves operations such as weeding and harvesting of crops. Hence, life revolves around agriculture in Indian villages. There are other sectors coming up but agriculture remains as the major livelihood in rural India.

URBAN LIVELIHOODS With growing economic activities, there is a wide need for urbanisation. With the coming of liberalisation in the early 1990s, India felt the need to rapidly increase urban areas and industrialisation. Therefore, in the last 25 years, urbanisation has increased by manifold in different parts of the country. To understand the economy of urban areas, we have to understand the following points:

Migrants There are a large number of people who have migrated from villages to cities and semi-urban areas in search of work. This category constitutes the majority of working and labour class in big factories and other trades. A part of these people provide different small services in the city life. They include vendors, rickshaw pullers, barbers, cobblers, and other small workers in the city. They work on their own and are not employed by anyone and therefore, have to organise their own work. They have to plan how much to purchase, as well as where and how to set up their shops. Their shops are usually temporary structures; sometimes, just boards or papers spread over discarded boxes or maybe a canvas sheet hung up on a few poles. There are certain parts of the city where hawkers are not allowed to enter. This is a big ambiguity and also shows a classist character of urban lives. Vendors sell things that are often prepared at home by their families who purchase, clean, sort, and make them ready to sell. They include people who sell food or snacks on the streets by preparing most of them at home. There are almost one crore street vendors in the country working in urban areas. Street vending was seen as an obstruction to traffic and pedestrians. However, with the effort of many organisations, it is now recognised as a general benefit and as a right of people to earn their livelihood.

Businesspersons Businesspersons are the second significant category of the urban economy. There are many people who own shops in various markets in the city. These shops may be small or large and sell different things. Most businesspersons manage their own shops or businesses. They are not employed by

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270 | Chapter 3 Making a Living anyone but they employ a number of other workers as supervisors and helpers. These are permanent shops that are given a licence to do business by the municipal corporation.

Factory-Workshop Area In the urban economy, the third significant sector is factory-like jobs. A large number of people in the city work as casual labourers or as temporary staff. These kinds of jobs do not have a permanent status. Working conditions, salaries, and other work-related benefits are not given to people employed in this sector. This may include casual labourers who work as painters or people who are employed in small factories or garment units. If workers complain about their pay or working conditions, they are asked to leave. There is no job security or protection if there is ill-treatment. They are also expected to work very long hours.

In the Office Area The other significant areas of urban economy where people are employed include office-related jobs. These jobs have a permanent status. All regular employees of an organisation get regular salaries on a monthly basis. These jobs continue for a longer period of time. Other than salary, people employed in this sector get other benefits as follows: 1. Savings for old age 2. Holidays 3. Medical facilities for the family There are many workers in the city who work in offices, factories, and government departments as regular and permanent workers. They attend the same office or factory regularly. Their work is clearly identified and they get regular salaries. Unlike casual workers, they will not be asked to leave if the factory does not have much work. We have discussed the different economic activities engaged by people in cities. It is interesting to note that many people perform different kinds of work in cities. They have probably never met each other but it is their work that ties them together and makes them a part of the urban life.

UNDERSTANDING MARKETS Can we exclude our lives from the market? Certainly not. We have to visit the market for purchasing many items whether they are rarely used or used in everyday lives. We buy food, clothes, medicines, cars, and so on. There are weekly markets, street hawkers, permanent shops, local bazaars, malls, and so on. These markets have a very important role to play in our lives. The main objective of any market is to make things available for people and earn benefits. A market cannot be understood as single unit, rather we have to understand it as a collective agency, such as one shop is not a mall, one shop is a shop and not the market in its full sense.

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In a weekly market, people set up shops for a few hours and vacate the place. This process happens once a week; therefore, it is called a weekly market. These markets are known by the name of the day they are placed such as Wednesday market, Friday market, and so on. Many markets can be placed at a location on different days. These markets are very useful to buy things for everyday requirements. One can bargain and get cheap things from these markets. There is neither a need for huge investment for such markets nor one needs to employ people. One can place his/her shop in these markets with the help of family members. The most important advantage of such markets is that one can find all the required items at one place. On the other hand, there are many neighbourhood shops that are permanent in nature. These shops are also run by one or two people and fulfil the needs of people living nearby. These shopkeepers buy things from other markets and sell them at their shops so that one can get the required things easily without hassles. One can buy, milk, groceries, stationery, medicines, and so on from such shops. There may be an exclusive shop for stationery or groceries or there may be general stores which keep all these things in one shop. These may be permanent or roadside stalls. A mall is a bigger place having various shops or brands under a single roof. These are multistoreyed buildings where floors are divided among various kinds of needs such as one floor may be given to eatables, another for men’s wear, one for women’s wear, and so on. They may also be organised at random. Malls sell things on a relatively costly basis. A powerful brand culture has become popular in India. Malls have played a very significant role in promoting this culture. This brand culture has also popularised western life style in India. It is also important to understand that the wholesale market is very important for other markets. People buy things from the wholesale market and sell them from their shops, weekly market, or malls. However, one has to buy a large quantity from the wholesale markets.

Understanding Equality and Market Various kinds of markets have been discussed in this chapter. However, these markets cannot be simply seen as a place where people buy things, rather, they have further created specific kinds of divisions in the society, which cannot be seen by the naked eyes but one has to analyse the situation with reference to the population that goes to malls and the reason for going to malls. One also has to understand that a person belonging to the middle class and lower class cannot afford to buy things from malls but the society has created a kind of thought process where high class and low class are determined by the market. If we take an example of a person working in a mall, he/she cannot buy things from the mall as his/her salary does not allow the same. However, he/she observes people and results in a kind of desire, which probably is not needed, and creates issues in their lives. Advertisem*nts capture the psyche of individuals and become the cause for various problems. There are many such problems of markets which create problems in the society. Therefore, we cannot separate economics from social life.

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SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ Livelihood is one of the most important economic activities in any country. In a developing economy like India, it becomes extremely important for the country’s GDP. ➨ India is basically an agricultural economy. About 60% of our population is employed in the agricultural sector or work related to it. ➨ On the basis of demography and economy, livelihoods in the Indian society can be divided into two major sectors—rural livelihood and urban livelihood. ➨ Rural livelihood forms a major part of the Indian economy. It is not only the largest sector but also accommodates the majority of the population of the country. ➨ There are people who provide services that are essential to the village such as blacksmiths, nurses, teachers, washer men, mechanics, and so on. ➨ Poor and landless labourers often spend a lot of time every day collecting firewood from the forest, getting water, and grazing their cattle. ➨ Nearly two-fifths of all rural families are agricultural labourers in our country. ➨ Agriculture largely depends on the monsoon. When there is not enough rain, crops can be ruined. ➨ We observe there are three categories of farmers in India that can be explained in the following manner: ■ Landless labourers ■ Small farmers ■ Big farmers ➨ Big farmers constitute 20% of India’s farming class. They cultivate most of the land in villages. ➨ With growing economic activities, there is a wide need for urbanisation. With the coming of liberalisation in the early 1990s, India also felt the need to rapidly increase urban areas and industrialisation. ➨ To understand the economy of the urban areas we have to understand the following points: ■ Migrants ■ Businesspersons ■ Factory-workshop area ■ Office area ➨ We cannot exclude our life from markets. We have to visit markets for items rarely used or used in everyday lives. ➨ The main objective of any market is to make things available for people and earn benefits. ➨ In weekly markets, people set their shops for a few hours and then vacate the place. This process happens once a week, therefore, it is called a weekly market. ➨ Neighbourhood shops are permanent establishments. These shops are also run by one or two people and fulfil the need of the people living nearby.

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➨ A mall is a bigger place having various shops or brands under a single roof. These are multistoreyed places where floors are divided among various needs such as one floor may be given to eatables, another for men’s wear, another for women’s wear, and so on. ➨ Markets cannot be simply seen as a place where people buy things; rather, they have further created specific kinds of divisions in the society, which cannot be seen by the naked eyes but one has to analyse the situation with reference to the relationship between the market and the society.

Check Your Progress 1. What do you understand by livelihood? Elaborate with suitable examples. 2. Explain rural and urban livelihood. Highlight the differences between the terms. 3. Critically review the role of market with reference to the society. 4. Describe the market around you. What are the constituents of the market?

5. Describe in brief with reference to the urban market: (a) Migrants (b) Businesspersons (c) Factory-workshop area (d) Office area

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS 1. A large portion of our village population is dependent heavily on: (a) Domestication. (b) Water resources. (c) Agriculture. (d) None of these 2. About 60% of population of India is employed in the _________ sector or works that are related to it. (a) private (b) government (c) service (d) agricultural 3. On the basis of demography and economic basis, livelihoods in Indian society can be divided into two major sectors, namely: (a) Agriculture and industrial livelihoods (b) Urban and non-urban livelihoods

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(c) Rural and urban livelihoods (d) None of these 4. __________ is a bigger place having various shops or brands under a single roof. (a) Shops (b) Malls (c) Weekly bazaars (d) Marts 5. The main objective of any market is to make things available (a) for shops and traders. (b) for people and earn benefits. (c) for farmers and poor people. (d) for police and military. 6. Big farmers constitute the ____ of India’s farming class. (a) 20% (b) 40%

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274 | Chapter 3 Making a Living (c) 60% (d) 80% 7. In ___________, people set their shops for a few hours and then vacate the place. (a) monthly market (b) permanent market (c) yearly market (d) weekly market 8. How much per cent of all rural families are agricultural labourers in our country? (a) Nearly one-fifth (b) Nearly two-fifth (c) Nearly three-fifth (d) Nearly four-fifth 9. Weekly market, street hawkers, permanent shops, local bazaars, and malls are examples of: (a) Shops (b) Places (c) Names (d) Markets 10. Businesspersons are the second significant category of: (a) Village economy (b) Rural economy (c) Urban economy (d) None of these 11. In the urban economy, the third significant sector is: (a) Office (b) Agriculture

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(c) Trade (d) Factory 12. A large number of people have been migrated from villages to the big cities and semi urban areas in search of: (a) Education (b) Electricity (c) Food (d) Work 13. In the last 25 years, ________ has increased by many fold in different parts of the country. (a) industrialisation (b) modernisation (c) communalisation (d) urbanisation 14. People in rural areas earn their living in: (a) One way (b) Two ways (c) Agriculture only (d) Various ways 15. How much percentage of landless labourer farmers constitute India’s total farming population? (a) 10% (b) 14% (c) 16% (d) 20%

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CHAPTER

Democracy

LEARNING ObjECTIVES • • • •

Understand the idea of democracy along with its journey from the past to the present Become aware of the various kinds of democracies Engage with the merits and demerits of democracy and democratic processes Analyse democracy beyond a form of government

INTRODUCTION Let us start this chapter with a few questions: what is democracy? Where did democracy come from? Why should we value democracy? Is representative democracy actually a good democracy? Is liberalism important for democracy? There are many such questions which need to be discussed to develop a better understanding of democracy and democratic processes.

DEFINITION OF DEMOCRACY Democracy is a form of government, where people participate in the decision-making process directly or indirectly. In case of indirect participation, they select their representatives, who take decision on people’s behalf. It can be further explained as a governmental process where the government is elected by the people with majority and the highest power resides in the people of the nation. We can also say that democracy has some characteristics such as election, active participation, human rights, and rule of law. All these characteristics get combined and create a democratic way of governance. It is interesting to know that the term ‘democracy’ stands completely against the system of the rule of elites, where only a few powerful people of the state take all the decisions about the rest of the people. It is also important to know that an elite class has largely ruled and were enjoying the status of democratic citizens. Women and slaves were not included in this category.

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276 | Chapter 4 Democracy It is also important to highlight here that democracy stands opposite to other kinds of governments such as monarchy or power enjoyed by one or a few. It is also a fact that in today’s world, democracy is mixed with monarchic and oligarchic characteristics. If we try to find out a common definition of democracy, we will not be able to reach any conclusion. Although, as has been said earlier on equality, freedom and rule of law are necessary characteristics of democracy. Democracy provides equal opportunities to exercise the rights and considers all citizens equal before law. A few examples are as follows: in democracy, every vote carries equal value, anybody in the nation who fulfils the minimum eligibility can become a representative and the Constitution and the judiciary enable accessibility of rights to all. Occasionally, democracy is used as a part of liberal democracy or representative democracy, which includes political pluralism, right to fight elections, equality before law, due process of law, human rights, civil rights, and so on. If we have a look at the various nations across the world, we will be able to make more sense of democracy and democratic governments. Let us examine the democracy of a few nations. • United Kingdom: It works on the Westminster system but the dominant way is parliamentary sovereignty, where judiciary plays an independent role. • America: Here, democracy works on the principle of separation of power. • India: The Constitution of India provides legitimacy to parliamentary sovereignty and the Constitution is subject to judicial review. Rule by majority is another important characteristic of the democracy, which somehow allowed minorities to be oppressed if some legal processes are not decided. These legal processes also ensure that legal help is accessible to all. The election should be procedurally acceptable. The term of a government should not be very less so as to restrict itself to take up any long-term reform. It should not be very long so as to make it authoritative. Providing voting right does not help much in democracy unless voters are educated and rational thinkers. They must have the capacity to use their votes appropriately and freely. Political collectivism and positive social constriction are two important features of a democracy.

A HISTORICAL VIEW Democracy is associated with Greek thought with reference to the city-state of Athens. It was a direct democratic process, which was working on two bases—a random selection of people on various governmental positions and legislative assemblies. There were direct processes of decision-making and law making. Everyone could speak and vote. It is also important to mention that women and slaves are not considered eligible citizens in Athens. It is interesting to know that democracy in Athens was purely direct as decisions were taken by assembled citizens rather than the court of law and were also directly controlled by the citizens. It is also important to know that individual rights are not safe or secured as we can see today, but it was ensured that one person cannot suppress another as decision were taken collectively.

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Unit III Social and Political Life | 277 The Roman Republic can also be discussed here for their contribution to democracy. Here, a few were considered citizens who had the right to vote and got elected. Therefore, important posts are in hands of wealthy people or families. Rome was the first nation in the West to introduce the Republic form of government; however, it is important to understand that we cannot call it a complete democracy. Most nations relate their democracies with Rome and Greece as power was used by people’s representatives and there was a nominated head of the state. During the middle ages, there were various kinds of governing systems in place but only a few were enjoying their rights to participate in the processes. Various systems which prevailed can be seen in form of a vast range of initial changes in democratic processes. For instance, Norway was working with Frostating, India (south) was governed by Cholas, and so on. The modern period offered more strength to democracy. The power of England Parliament increased. Various new legislations came into existence such as the Habeas Corpus Act 1679, which provides various liberties to people. A civil war occurred in England during 1642–1651 and the Bill of Rights was accepted in 1689. In Virginia (North America), representative government started in 1961. In 1707, the British Parliament was established when the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland got merged because of the Acts of Union. Here, it is important to know that only a few people—about 3%—participated in the election. The Corsican Republic (1755) is known as the first nation in modern history that engaged with the democratic Constitution and provided rights to all people to vote who were above 25 years of age. The Constitution has provided voting right to women. America also adopted its Constitution in 1787 after the American Revolution. Their Constitution provided an elected government and protection to civil rights. However, voting rights were not given to all people but slaves system was ended. Voting rights were reserved to a few White wealthy people. For the first time, due to the French Revolution in 1848, universal male suffrage in France was given. Liberal democracy came into existence as a result of various revolutions, wars, declarations, and so on. The First World War and the Second World War created a situation where women came out from houses, worked, and started contributing to the economy. However, the right to suffrage was not given to all women. In 1893, New Zealand was the first nation to provide the right to vote to women.

TYPES OF DEMOCRACIES As discussed earlier, there is no common definition of democracy. One can find many kinds of democracies across the world—in theory and practice. However, it is important to keep in mind that all forms of democracy are completely different and exclusive from another; rather they share different characteristics under a larger umbrella called democracy. It is very clear that the two forms of democracy—direct democracy and representative democracy, also known as indirect democracy—work behind all other kinds of democracy.

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Direct Democracy A political system where every person participates in decision-making personally is known as direct democracy. The Athenian democracy can be considered one of the examples of direct democracy. In direct democracy, people have voting rights for many decisions such as constitutional changes, reforms, laws, change in rights, and so on. There are still few ways used and can be called a part of direct democracy. These include initiatives taken by citizens, referendum, recall, etc.

Representative Democracy Representative democracy is a form of government where representatives are elected by the people. In India, we have representative democracy. Along with this, it is also a republic as it has the elected head of the state and not the nominated head as in Britain. This means that it is not necessary that democracy will always come with a republic system. These representatives are elected and represent a specific constituency or area. Even after declaring one representative democracy, it carries some feature of direct democracy such as referendum, and so on.

Parliamentary Democracy Parliamentary democracy is a form of representative democracy and can be appointed and dismissed; it is different from the presidential system. The power of the government is used by an executive body, which itself is subject to continuous review. The Legislature keeps a check on the work of the executive body. In a parliamentary system, the Prime Minister can be removed from his/her office by the Parliament on proving that the Prime Minister is not discharging his/her deities appropriately. This is done with a ‘No Confidence’ motion in the legislature through vote. This decision will be taken with majority. There must be a loyal opposition in every parliamentary democracy. The political party who gets the second highest vote will sit in opposition.

Presidential Democracy A democratic system where the President is the head of the state and elected through fair election is known a presidential democracy. The President is also the head of all the executive powers. The President can be on his/her post for a fixed period of time and the election will also be conducted on a pre-decided date. Cabinet ministers are also appointed by the President. It is important to know that the President is a very powerful person and cannot be easily removed from his/her position. Similarly, the President also cannot easily remove the members of the Parliament. Here, one controls the other.

Other Kinds of Democracy Today, it is difficult to simply label any governing system as purely democratic, as there are various aspects that work together to run a system. These combined forms are called hybrid democracies such as governing system of Switzerland. Inclusive democracy is another kind of

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Unit III Social and Political Life | 279 democracy which argues to incorporate democracy in the dimension of live and not only in political processes. Such democracy will work towards a more liberal and egalitarian society. Today, in the globalised world, the idea of cosmopolitan democracy is advocated by many political theorists. It is also known as global or world democracy. The need for world democracy was felt because whatever decision taken at the national level has a direct or indirect impact on the world or citizens of other nations. They are not party to it as they have not voted for/against it. Therefore, it was thought that the democracy is a global phenomenon than a very local one. However, it is a reality that not such system is in place which can ensure a cosmopolitan democracy approach. Though some agencies are created, it is also a fact that they are also working under the pressure of the First World nations. The idea of creative democracy is favoured by John Dewey. The fundamental idea is to enhance the capacity and capabilities of an individual so that he/she can understand social relations. Here, democracy only means to encourage the abilities in individual to understand rationally and taking decision critically. The whole idea behind democracy is to democratisation, where every individual has the liberty and right to equality, which provides the space, chance, or opportunities for the development of a critical human being who lives peacefully and also accepts the rightful co-existence of others. Let us summarise the points discussed on democracy in this chapter with reference to the points mentioned in the box.

A system of governance based on election and people’s participation. Direct and representative democracies are the two broad forms of democracy. ■ People and political participation and contestation are the fundamentals to democracy. ■ There are various kinds of institutions in all democracies, which have their merits and demerits. ■ One person, one vote, and one value are the followed norm. ■ There are various systems under democratic governance such as parliamentary democracy, presidential democracy, and hybrid democracy. ■ In the parliamentary system, power resides in the hand of the legislature, whereas in the presidential system, most of the power resides in the hands of the President. ■ ■

We have studied and understood the characteristics of a democracy. It is also important to understand that we need to be aware of the merits and demerits or views against and in favour of democracy.

VIEWS AGAINST DEMOCRACY Democracy has many good features which distinguish it from other kinds of governing systems. The views against democracy can be understood as follows: • Leaders keep changing in a democracy. This leads to instability. • Democracy is all about political competition and power play. There is no scope for morality.

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280 | Chapter 4 Democracy • • • •

Many people have to be consulted in a democracy and it leads to delays. Elected leaders do not know the best interests of people. It leads to taking bad decisions. Democracy leads to corruption as it is based on electoral completion. Ordinary people do not know what is good for them; they should not decide anything. (Democratic Politics, Chapter 2, NCERT, pp. 32) It is important to know that democracy cannot perform miracles. We know that issues such as caste, class, gender, and poverty are still not solved in our nation and many nations across the world. However, it is also important to know that democracy provides liberty to people to decide and choose but it cannot ensure a perfect life, because decisions may contradict among leaders. Democracy provides the opportunities to change the government from time to time to enhance the efficiency of the system.

VIEWS FAVOURING DEMOCRACY Irrespective of various limitations and demperits, democracy is favoured due to many reasons as follows: • Democracy is relatively more accountable than other kinds of governing systems. It is more accountable to the people of the nation. • People participate in decision-making directly or indirectly. • Opportunities are given to take quality decisions. • There are opportunities to explore and understand various kinds of differences and conflicts. • Citizens get more respect, agency, and dignity in a democracy. • There is scope for self-corrective measures in a democracy. It provides the chance to critique and evaluate the democratic processes within a democracy. We have to understand democracy as an approach and may have more broad perspectives but here, we have discussed its merits and demerits with reference to the government. We also discussed minimum qualities of a democratic government. It is also important to know that we have a representative democracy in most nations. Views favouring and against democracy will surely help in distinguishing between democratic and non-democratic forms of government. However, we must keep in mind that democracy is not simply a form of government; rather, it is a way of life. My family is very democratic and always involves me in decision-making, and my teacher provides a chance to participate every learner in the class. These examples explain the meaning of democracy in situations apart from a government system.

REQUISITES FOR SUCCESSFUL DEMOCRACY Economic development, political enlightenment, and education are necessary for a successful democracy. Economic development is a necessary condition for democracy; if a nation is economically sound, it will provide enough opportunities to citizens, who will be able to contribute in a democracy. Economically developed nations can provide the necessary facilities to citizens. Sufficient resources will provide strength to people, which, in turn strengthens the democracy.

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Unit III Social and Political Life | 281 Political enlightenment will make citizens more aware about political processes and practices and also provide strength to the democracy because people will be able to know their rights and responsibilities. Politically enlightened people will use their right to choose with critical perspective. Education is one of the important conditions for a successful democracy. Educated people can make better use of democracy for the national development. They also know how to vote and how to choose representatives. They are well aware of their rights and responsibilities, which strengthens the democracy and democratic processes.

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ Democracy is a form of government, where people participate in the decision-making process directly or indirectly. ➨ Election, active participation, human rights, and the rule of law are some essential characteristics of a democracy. All these aspects get combined and create a democratic way of governance. ➨ It is also important to highlight that democracy stands opposite to various other kinds of governments such as monarchy where power is enjoyed by one or a few people. ➨ The United Kingdom follows the Westminster system but the dominant way is parliamentary sovereignty, where the judiciary plays an independent role. ➨ In the USA, democracy works on the principle of separation of power. ➨ In India, the Constitution of India provides legitimacy to parliamentary sovereignty and the Constitution is subject to judicial review. ➨ Rule by majority is an important characteristic of democracy, which somehow allowed minorities to be oppressed, if some legal processes are not decided. ➨ Democracy in Athens was purely direct because not only the decisions were taken by assembled citizens; rather the court of law was also directly controlled by the citizens. ➨ A political system where every person participates in decision-making personally is known as direct democracy. ➨ Representative democracy is a form of government where representatives are elected by the people. ➨ Parliamentary democracy is a form of representative democracy and can be appointed and dismissed; it is different from the presidential system. The power of the government is used by an executive body, which itself is subject to continuous review. ➨ A democratic system where the President is the head of the state and elected through fair election is known a presidential democracy. ➨ Hybrid democracies, inclusive democracy, cosmopolitan democracy, and creative democracy are also understood as forms of democracy. ➨ There are various views against democracy as follows: ■ Leaders keep changing ■ Delay in decision-making

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282 | Chapter 4 Democracy Inabilities of leader may result in danger Common people do not decide anything ➨ The various views against democracy are as follows: ■ More accountability ■ Quality decisions ■ Respect for differences ■ Participation in decision-making ■ Opportunity to critique ■ ■

Check Your Progress 1. What do you understand by democracy? 2. Discuss the differences between direct and representative forms of democracy. 3. Differentiate some characteristics of democracy from other forms of governing systems. 4. How and when can a democracy become successful? Discuss the requisites for a good democracy.

5. Explain the merits and demerits of democracy with suitable examples. 6. Apart from direct and representative democracy, what are the various types of democracy?

Objective Questions 1. Democracy necessarily should have: (a) Elections and rights (b) Social mobility (c) Economic dependency (d) None of these 2. How does economic development strengthen the democracy? (a) It helps the rich become richer (b) It provided opportunity to people to participate in the economic growth of the democracy (c) It reduces conflicts (d) None of these 3. What is the meaning of ‘one person, one vote, one value’ in democracy? (a) One person can vote for anybody

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(b) Everyone has the right to vote and each vote has equal value (c) A person can vote only once (d) None of these 4. Democracy should be based on: (a) One-party system (b) Multiparty system (c) Free and fair election (d) All of these 5. A good democracy provides: (a) Rights to citizens (b) Opportunities to criticise (c) Right to education (d) All of these 6. Democracy is a good governing process but it has few demerits such as:

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Slow decision-making Corruption Exploitation All of these

7. Democracy can provide: (a) Education to all (b) Jobs to all (c) Homes to all (d) All of these 8. Decision-making in democracy is better than any other kinds of government because (a) people participate in decision (directly or indirectly). (b) it delays the process. (c) there is no corruption in democracy. (d) None of these 9. Which of the following kinds of democracy is the most prevalent in the world? (a) Direct democracy (b) Representative democracy (c) Social democracy (d) Political democracy 10. Democracy is spreading across the world because of (a) intervention of foreign nations. (b) people’s struggle. (c) people’s desire to be free. (d) Both (b) and (c) 11. __________, political enlightenment, and economic development are important for better development of democracy. (a) Education (b) Social mobility (c) Quick decision-making (d) None of these 12. In a democracy, the government takes decisions on the behalf of the:

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Legislative People Judiciary Cabinet

13. The right to vote was given for the first time to women by: (a) The USA in 1884 (b) Britain in 1879 (c) France in 1784 (d) New Zealand in 1893 14. India is a: (a) Parliamentary democracy (b) Presidential democracy (c) Representative democracy (d) None of these 15. Creative democracy is favoured by: (a) John Dewey (b) John lock (c) Aristotle (d) Plato 16. Democracy is s system where: (a) Minority rules (b) Majority rules (c) Elite rules (d) None of these 17. When someone criticises a democracy, it means (a) person is aware about issues of democracy. (b) democracy is not a good system. (c) democracy is insufficient to serve the need of the people. (d) None of these 18. Democratic government is: (a) Popular (b) Powerful (c) Legitimate (d) Useful

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CHAPTER

Understanding Media

LEARNING OBjECTIVES • • • • •

Critically understand the media Critically review the role of media in democracy Explore the relationship between media and people Know What, and how and why media advertise Understand the role of media in political and economic development

INTRODUCTION Media is an umbrella term which incorporates TV, radio, telephone, Internet, and many more. Media can be understood as a process of communication, which may be two-way or one-way. In this chapter, we will try to understand the term ‘media’ in its comprehensive manner, which influences our everyday experiences. Therefore, we can also say that the role of media is to interact with the society. In this sense, media can also be seen as a means for something. Media can influence millions of people at once. This chapter will also help us understand the use of media in a democratic nation. The media provides strength to democracy and how democracy also provides space to open media are discussed. The combination of media and democracy leads to a good system, which facilitates better standard of living in the society. Today, it is very difficult to think about human life without media. Media influences every sphere of our lives. Most information is obtained from the media. It may be print or electronic media. It is important to know that the Internet and such media are recent developments in this filed. It has been hardly 20 years of development of such media. Rapid development of technology is the prime reason for the growth of media. It is evident that we were more inclined to print media and the electronic media became widely prevalent in recent years. It is also important to know that different techniques are used in electronic and print media. Undoubtedly, the electronic media reaches people faster than other kinds of media. Media enables to create changes in our thought process. We are able to relate with the world with the help of various kinds of media such as the Internet and television. However, we must

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aware of the fact that the media affects our lives to a greater extent. It also affects our decisions and our way of life. Media has made this world very small but simultaneously, we should also know that a specific kind of agenda gets promoted through media. There is an idea in Gestalt psychology—‘what we see is different from what we perceive.’ This simple line has various implications on media, and one of them is what is shown in the media and what we see are not reality. These are created for a purpose and the purpose is only ‘selling’. Although the media itself is not wrong, it is wrongly used. However, it will be very difficult to see system without the media. It is difficult to segregate media from our life, but we need to develop a critical vision about it.

DEMOCRACY AND MEDIA Media has a great value in democracy if it is used properly. If the media is unorganised, it can create issues which can never be resolved. Therefore, evolved media would be beneficial and contribute to a successful democracy. Democracy works on the basis of right to expression, and the media provides such space and therefore, has become the fourth pillar of democracy. Through the media, we become aware of the issues and problems prevailing in the society and political system. One may become aware of one’s rights and responsibilities. All these things can only happen when the media is not biased towards any particular ideology and political power. The media can organise certain activities to make people participate in a democracy through participating in their programmes. To accomplish this, media has to organise debates, talks, and campaign about various issues. The idea behind such programmes would be to make people aware about such issues and they will be able to analyse the mode of governance so that they make a better choice of electing and rejecting the current party in the future. In this manner, neutral media can work to establish a better democracy. Awareness that is spread through media makes people capable to take action against various issues and problems of the society. A collective voice can be raised against such issues. It is important that news must be presented in a balanced manner. Balanced news means that one newspaper or news channel may present one perspective and another news channel may provide a different perspective about any problem or issue; until we read and understand both perspectives, we will not be able to understand the true picture of the situation for analysis. However, a fundamental question here is with regard to who can write a free or an unbiased report. Media organisations that work without any pressure of political power will be able to write a free analysis without any bias. What is to be telecasted through the media should be free so that everyone becomes aware about problems. It has been established through various ways that democracy is a system of people, by the people, of the people, and for the people. Freedom and democracy are associated with each other. As far as my analysis of democracy is concerned, I feel it is more suitable for a liberal economy. Freedom must be ensued through media. This freedom will also provide the space to review and critically analyse the prevailing system.

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286 | Chapter 5 Understanding Media Media can also be seen as a tool between people and the state. It provides information to the people about the decisions taken by government/state/judiciary, and so on. Media work to develop and break opinions. For this purpose, media has to win the confidence of people. This becomes the fundamental requirement to make the media powerful and actually democratic. One also needs to be aware that we must use our cognitive ability to interpret the media projection. One should not simply follow what has been shown and presented on media. Such attitude and behaviour will also be against democratic spirit. A critical and aware citizen can understand and use democracy in its actual sense. In the absence of such abilities, democracy will lose its strength. Media need to be seen as a bridge between people and state. Reporting about social issues such as caste, class, gender, hom*osexuality, child labour, and so on prepare a broad agenda for the future and further discussion and action. We know that transparency is important in democracy. How can we work to make the system actually transparent and accountable? Media is a tool, which can work as a tool for transparency. Media should be transparent and not work for petty interests. Media should understand the condition and work for the benefit of the society. The media makes people aware of the loopholes of the democracy or how the democratic process is being used. By doing so, it keeps a check on the activities that take place in the name of democracy. People also become aware about the processes adopted by people sitting in power and taking decisions for others. We must be aware of the fear that we are living in a world where new knowledge is being generated and that knowledge and information reach us through the media. To what extent are we able to critically deal with this information? Does our education system inculcate abilities in us to be critical and reflective? Or are we simply stuck in the web of all kinds of information? Therefore, education becomes another important need for a successful democracy. Media has a great role to play in the promotion of education. It is also important to keep in mind and one must be aware that over coverage of any content may dilute the seriousness of the issue and many also divert the central point of the issue. This may cause disturbance in social lives of people in form of riots and so on. We all need to acknowledge media as the fourth pillar of democracy. Although there are issues with the use of media in a democracy, it is also a fact that appropriate use of media will develop a better democracy, which will serve good for all. We understand that democracy in India facing difficulty but the media can play a significant role to establish successful democracy.

WHAT IS TO BE ADVERTISED AND HOW Media has to play a great role about what we will be able to know in detail and what we will not be able to know at all. There are various events happening around us but it is also true that the media does not write and show everything. How do the media select what to show and what not to show? There must be some agenda for showing selectively. This agenda must be governed by a liberal economic perspective.

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Important and unimportant news are decided on the basis of saleability. If a college organises a programme and some locally active person who actually works for the community is invited, the media may not give coverage. On the other hand, if some political leader or big industrialist attends the event, the media will cover the event. It is now apparent as to which news become important and which does not. The media also presents sensitive issues such as caste, class, gender, and so on. It is aware of the fact that such issues will become the base of their publicity. Here, it does not mean that entire media works in this manner. There must be genuine cases as well. Nevertheless, majority of media houses use these issues to make money and direct monitorial benefits. It is not true that media will always work under any political pressure. Sometimes, they present important news related to social concern. Such news include problems of water paucity in some areas, issues of cleanliness, crime, and so on. Therefore, the print media publishes various kinds of information; some are politically governed, some are economically governed; and some are meant for social awareness. However, the actual task of media is to present the true picture of issues. Another important aspect of the media is ‘local media.’ Such media deal with local issues and problems which may be not of much interest to everyone. Examples include community radio discusses local issues and shares information with farmers. An example is the Khabar Lahriya, a fortnightly newspaper that is run by eight Dalit women in Chitrakoot district in Uttar Pradesh. Written in the local language, Bundeli, this eight-page newspaper reports on Dalit issues and cases of violence against women and political corruption. The newspaper reaches farmers, shopkeepers, panchayat members, school teachers, and women who have recently learnt to read and write. Social and Political Life, class VII, Page 77 In democracy, various ways media play a very important role in our everyday life and enable people to know of the various actions taken by the government. This awareness is important for planning the agenda for future action. However, as emphasised earlier, the content of a news channel and newspaper is also very important. Therefore, whenever we read or watch any news, we must ask a few questions as follows: What kind of information is delivered? What is the perspective? Why is news given? Why are some perspectives left out? These questions will provide a critical outlook while reading and watching any news.

UNDERSTANDING ADVERTISING CRITICALLY We are surrounded by various kinds of media which present different advertisem*nts. These may be related to beauty products, education, movies, furniture, and other aspects of our lives. These may appear good at the first glance and help us decide what to take or buy. Do we also critically analyse what we buy or do we simply get influenced by advertisem*nts? In a liberal economy, everything is saleable and companies use ethical or unethical ways to sell their products. Companies

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288 | Chapter 5 Understanding Media make several claims such as increase in height if one drinks a particular drink, increase in fairness if one uses a particular beauty cream, and so on. We must thoughtfully choose the products that we plan to buy. We must ask several questions as follows: What is the use of the product? Do we really need it? Why are such products advertised? How real is the claim done by the company? At the international level, it is very interesting to know that after 1990, the cosmetic market raised and established itself rapidly in comparison with others. India was seen as a market for such products and continuous winners such as Miss World, Miss Universe, and Miss Asia Pacific pageants belonged to India. Suddenly, there seemed to be an abundance of beauty in India. If we analyse this trend critically, we can see a very clear liberal market strategy, in which, the need was first generated and then the market was launched. When we move behind branding, it troubles us. It also creates a social stratification in the society, where the rich wear only brands and other local clothes available in local markets. Generally, branding is done to make differences in various products. Slowly, it became a reason for division in society. Branding actually came from cattle grazing. Cattle of different owners grazed together in ranches and they often got mixed up. The owners thought of a solution. They started marking their cattle with the owner’s sign by using a heated iron. This was called ‘branding’. Social and Political Life, class VII, Page 82 You must be able to recall the advertisem*nts of ‘Nirma’ and ‘Colgate’. These brand names gradually become synonyms with the products. You will also often hear ‘Nirma lana hai’, but actually we will buy some other brand. The same can be said with Colgate as well. However, there are many brands available that one has to tell the name of the brand when he/she goes to buy anything. There are larger ethical issues with advertisem*nts. Although there are guidelines that need to be followed, to what extent are these followed and how have they been manipulated are matter of concern. The customer is very confused in a market. After knowing the details of the product, one faces problems in deciding what to buy, and is left with trial and error. The trial and error method fills the pockets of capitalists. Capitalism uses our power of imagination to earn money by branding a product, and makes us imagine that until we do not buy a given product, we cannot live a good life. If we do not serve a particular brand of rice to guests, we are poor in hospitality and begin thinking of buying expensive brands of rice, though there is not much difference among the brands. Similarly, many relations such as mother and child, education and child have been used by companies to use people’s emotions to sell products. Some examples are if you use a particular soap for your child, you will be a good mother. Such advertisem*nts simply play with love and emotional attachment between a child and mother. Therefore, we must be wise and critical enough of such advertisem*nts and not follow them blindly.

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Companies cleverly use famous actors and actresses to sell their products which gain emotionally attached buyers. People simply feel and show their trust not to the produce but to the presenter. Famous people are used in such ways to sell products.

MEDIA CAN BE A TOOL FOR POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT There are various ways by which media can contribute to political and economic development. Economic development is obvious to all but political development means effective and better use of politics in favour of masses. Few such points are disused here.

Monitoring Government Action and Empowering People about Their Exploitation This is possible when the media plays a free, fair, and strong role towards issues. This strength will reduce the level of corruption. Corruption will be minimised as people will be having information and information provides voice to the people.

Strength to Strong Economy to Work towards Stability The continuous engagement of media with economic issues provides strength to the nation. The economic growth is related to good political coordination. Media can develop good political coordination, which eventually helps to develop better and useful policies to strengthen the economic structure and growth. This coordination also reduces the political risk of deadlock.

Developing Public Opinion Media has the power to change public opinion about various issues and therefore, the responsibility of media is crucial. It plays a major role of reforming a society as it contributes in the development of people’s attitude.

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ Media has a great role to play in a democratic nation. There is a need to understand how it provides strength to democracy and how democracy also provides space to open media. ➨ Today, it is very difficult to think about human life without the media. Media influences every sphere of our lives. Most information is received by the print or electronic media. ➨ It is important to critically engage with the media as it works on the principle of Gestalt— ‘what we see is different from what we perceive.’ ➨ Media has a great value in democracy if used properly. If used in an unorganised manner, it can create issues which can never be resolved. Therefore, the evolved media would be beneficial and contribute to a successful democracy.

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290 | Chapter 5 Understanding Media ➨ Media can organise certain activities to keep people participating in a democracy by participating in their programmes. Media has to organise debates, talks, and campaign about various issues. ➨ Awareness spread through media makes people capable to take action against various issues and problems of the society. A collective voice can be raised against such issues. ➨ Media working without any pressure of political power will be able to write a free story without any bias. ➨ One also needs to be aware that we must use our cognitive abilities to interpret media’s projection. One should not simply follow what has been shown and presented in media. Such attitude and behaviour will also be against democratic spirit. ➨ Media is a tool, which can be used for transparency, except that media itself should be transparent and should not work for pity interests. ➨ Media makes people aware of the loop holes of democracy or how the democratic process is being used. By doing so, it keeps a check on the activities that take place in the name of democracy. ➨ In the process of selecting news to be shared, media may be governed by political or economic pressure. In such a situation, media will not be able to contribute to democracy. ➨ We must learn to analyse advertisem*nts and should not follow them blindly. A critical view of advertisem*nts will surely help in deciding what to buy. ➨ Media can also be a good tool for political and economic development by developing co-ordination between various institutions of politics and economy.

Check Your Progress 1. What is media? Give some examples to explain the role of media in our lives. 2. What is the need to understand advertisem*nts critically? Illustrate with examples. 3. Elaborate with an example as to how the media is an important aspect of a democracy. 4. Unorganised media can damage the democracy. Discuss with appropriate examples.

6. What is a brand? What is the need to brand a product and how does branding affect the social system? 7. How can media contribute to political and economic development? Illustrate with examples. 8. Select any product of your choice and explain the strategies used by you to advertise it.

5. What are the important points to be kept in mind while watching and buying a product being sold through advertisem*nts?

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Objective Questions 1. The first use of internet was: (a) E-mail (b) Chat rooms (c) Blogs (d) Discussion groups 2. Social media target college-going youth because (a) they are important for them to create a market. (b) they are more interested in brands. (c) they use mobile more than others. (d) None of these 3. Blogs can be understood as (a) web page deals with online books. (b) websites which are business-oriented. (c) search engines. (d) None of these 4. Social media provide strength to: (a) Users (b) Markets (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these 5. How does the use of technology enable the consumer? (a) It provides better opportunities to explore (b) It provides scope for better measurement (c) It provides additional information (d) None of these 6. Why is media important for a democracy? (a) It makes citizens critical. (b) It provides space to criticise the government. (c) It helps people decide whom to vote. (d) None of these

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7. The combination of ___________ and _________ can provide a better life to citizens. (a) media and government (b) media and democracy (c) media and people (d) media and judiciary 8. Sometimes, what we see on the media is fake and incorrect and this very idea can be best understood by the saying ‘what we see is different from what we perceive.’ This saying is associated with: (a) Humanism (b) Gestalt (c) Behaviourism (d) All of these 9. The fourth pillar of democracy is known as: (a) Parliament (b) Judiciary (c) Media (d) People 10. Advertisem*nt uses __________ to sell products. (a) feeling and emotions (b) money (c) thinking (d) None of these 11. Media can be a tool for economic and political development because (a) it can reduce the conflict between various political institutions. (b) it provides new avenues to new business houses. (c) it is the only way to run a better business in a democratic nation. (d) All of these

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292 | Chapter 5 Understanding Media 12. Media is a good example of ____________ in a democratic country. (a) right to free speech and expression (b) right to chose (c) right to life (d) right to equality 13. What works behind advertisem*nt? (a) Political and economic factors (b) People’s needs (c) Social needs (d) National needs

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14. Social influence of a brand (a) creates social stratification. (b) makes people’s lives better. (c) provides confidence in people. (d) All of these 15. Media plays a major role in democracy by: (a) Developing public opinion (b) Monitoring government (c) Criticising policies (d) None of these

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CHAPTER

Understanding Gender Perspective

LEARNING OBjECTIvES • • • •

Explore the concept of gender Understand the difference between sex and gender Understand gender beyond male and female Be aware of the issues and challenges with reference to gender discrimination

INTRODUCTION The term gender is used very often but not understood correctly. People use this term without understanding it completely. Our understanding of gender is based on socialisation that we have gone through in family and society. Later, education also contributes to this understanding. Gender has been largely understood as something which is concerned only with women. When we say ‘gender’, it simply presents a picture of women. Actually, gender includes all aspects of it and incorporates boys, girls, and the third gender, which may include hom*osexuals, eunuchs, and so on. This chapter will try to redefine the meaning of gender in a broader sense, where it is not only restricted to women but also provides a better lens to perceive gender beyond radical feminism. One may find the terms ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ being interchangeably used. This interchangeable use is not correct. We need to understand that sex is biologically determined and gender is socially perceived. We are born with a sex and society put us in the category of gender, which should not be associated with one’s biology. Sex is related to sex chromosomes, hormones, reproductive system, etc. Sex is used to identify whether a person is male or female, but gender is a complex phenomenon which is socially constructed and can be understood with reference to relationships of individuals with the society. Biology, sense of being male or female, and expression of behaviour relate to one’s sense of feeling male or female. They give a better understanding about one’s gender. They provide information on how one perceives himself/herself and how others also perceive them. It is important to understand that we cannot understand gender as a binary system like 0 and 1, where both are distinct from each other. We have to understand gender as a multiple array system. When we talk about 0 and 1, refer to sex organs, and when we refer to multiple arrays,

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294 | Chapter 6 Understanding Gender Perspective multiple aspects and dimensions of social, political, cultural, and economic aspects which actually construct the notion and idea of gender are being discussed. One may not agree, but there are multiple arrays that provide better space and scope to understand gender as a multiple construct which is beyond sex. Saying that ‘gender is a social construct’ also limits it in a very narrow sense. The kind of socio-economic and political scenario around us and the environment develop our understanding of gender. Family, parents, peers, school, curriculum, and policy have their roles to play in shaping the idea of gender. It is also important that the developed idea of gender is reinforced by society in one way of another. From pre-natal period to death, everything is categorised under gender and that too, under male or female. For example, toys, clothes, education, colours, social behaviour, and interpersonal relationships are all gendered. Gender role is taught to kids from very first day they take birth and this continues till they die. This role division also creates a kind of hegemony of one gender over other, which is commonly known as patriarchy. Here, one gender is considered superior and others are the subordinates. This superiority and subordination can be observed in all spheres of the life and this gradually becomes a tool for exploitation. What is more interesting to know is the movement which originated about women rights and equality and has also failed to evolve from the epistemological boundaries of the existing dominant idea. It started a struggle to become a man, which led it to fights on the line ‘woman can do all what a man does.’ This statement troubled the entire discourse equality, where men were considered as an aim which need to be achieved by women. The agency, authority, and equality which should be the base of such movement were undermined. Though there are evidences which show that women struggle for being the way they are, such handful of work could not overcome the idea of making men and women equal in scenes what a man can do and what a woman can also do. Another idea which needs to be shared here with reference to gender discourse is that the work done by women was degraded by feminist movement and it was tried to prove that the work done by women are of a lower level. Thought patriarchy also contributed to this idea. However, the argument which is more important is that the movement which originated to establish equality suddenly changed to become like a man. This is a root cause for a genesis-based problem in the feminist movement. We are discussing all these issues of genesis of feminist movement to provide a better base and foundation to understand gender. There is no second thought with regard to the idea of equality among genders. However, it is also significantly important to think and work to achieve the objective rather equating one’s identity with others. The objective of such movement needs to be changed towards developing self-identity, which is not dependent on others’ approval.

GENDER BEYOND MALE OR FEMALE Stereotypical thinking can limit gender with reference to male or female. We must know that this category does not represent the gender in its complete sense. There are people of third gender,

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and within the third gender, there are various sub-categories. The whole idea of gender must also talk about the people of third gender. It includes people who belong to categories such as eunuchs, hom*osexuals, transgenders, asexuals, and so on. These people have their own issues and their concerns must be addressed under the discourse of gender. Therefore, gender discourse is a very vast discourse. In this regard, we also need to understand that this variation in gender is a normal part of human lives across the world and history has evidences to prove the same. This variation is due to biological, social, and social reasons. However, the larger agenda should be equality of all people, irrespective of their gender and sexual orientation. The very debate of natural or unnatural orientation should not suppress a person’s right to be the way he/she would like to be. The division of work, preference for a colour, or talking in a specific way does not make a person culprit. Associated stereotypes need to be questioned. This very thinking needs to be imparted because an ill-thinking process will create hurdles in the path to equality. It is also important to understand that there are various privileges given to one gender over another; such privileges create unwanted discrimination in all spheres of life, in family, and in public places. Can we consider every one equal without such biases or is it beyond applicability? These are two fundamental questions which need to be resolved. If we are already working with the notion that an existing situation and gendered thinking cannot be changed, there will be hardly any effect for all the efforts taken. If there is optimism in the working style and thinking pattern, there will be some changes. Therefore, one has to think which idea he/she belongs to.

TERMS RELATED TO GENDER Gender has become a vast discourse and many terms, ideas, and phrases are being used. Some are needed, some are enforced, and some are used politically. Some use gender issues as a platform for professional development. Here, we will be discussing commonly used terms in gender discourse.

Sex (Biological) Sex is a biological concept, which is directly related to reproductive organs and makes the first distinction between a man and woman. It is purely physical and has no direct relation with the society. Some studies show hom*osexuals as a result of socialisation. A majority of studies are in favour of the biological determination of gender. The sex of a child is determined at the time when it is conceived. XX chromosomes produce a female child and XY produce a male child. The third sex—eunuch—is also a biological construct. Here, we are not talking about transgenders.

Gender Identity What a person thinks about oneself as a male, a female, both, or nothing; he/she is constructing a gender role identity. It is important to know that gender identity is not developed completely alone,

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296 | Chapter 6 Understanding Gender Perspective rather all possible aspects (political, social, economic, etc.) contribute in one’s understanding of gender identity. Generally, people develop their gender identity according to their biological sex, but for some, it is not the same. They develop their gender identity different from their biological sex.

Expression of Gender Expression of gender refers to the way people represent and express their gender identity to others. This expression can be done through hairstyle, voice, behaviour, and so on. The expression of gender is also related to one’s gender identity. Sometimes, people do not feel comfortable to behave as per their biological sex and they behave opposite to it. Sometimes, they suppress their feelings as the society does not accept them. We have gender classified as per our biological sex, second, we behave opposite to our biological sex, and third, we suppress our feelings and do not behave the way we want to do. Social pressure, expectation, systems, and structure enculturate a person to behave in a certain way and the opposite behaviour is considered unhealthy. The expression of gender has become so strong and powerful tool to label a person that there is hardly any space outside or beyond this categorisation.

Gender Role Gender role represents the kind of role expected by the society. Each gender has been assigned a role and one has to behave accordingly to fit in the system. Therefore, it has become an important aspect that we must adopt. These assigned roles are somehow gendered. A specific role is expected from a male and a female. Masculinity is associated with man and femininity is associated with female. Any role beside these will not be acceptable as healthy in the society. Such people may be called eunuchs, transgenders, or hom*osexuals. Transgender is generally used in a broad sense and any person whose interest falls beyond or outside the interest of male or female are labelled as transgenders.

Orientation towards Sex There are two clear categories in the society about sexual interest. These are called heterosexual and hom*osexual. hom*osexuality is not considered natural and not legal in many nations across the world. On other hand, heterosexuality is celebrated with pride and legalised. Some may have not sexual orientation and will be called asexual people. It is important to note that other than heterosexuals, all other sexual orientations are not seen in good spirit across the world. However, they do exist and have their own way of living.

Fluidity in Gender This is a term which represents gender in a more open and flexible manner, which also opens the cage of fixed gender notion like a good boy and nice girl orientation. It provides fluidity in

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sexual and gender preference. At one time, one may feel like a boy and at other time, like a girl. It appears as if one may live life the way he/she would like to live without any kinds of forced restrictions. It is neither based on any kind of consensus about gender identity, gender role, etc., which is generated forcibly.

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN GENDER EQUALITY Over a period of time, gender has become a sensitive issue, not because there is some problem which pre-exists, rather, because of the way it has been interpreted and understood. It provides a rationale to enfold the realities of gender issues as far as there are concerns. A few of such issues and challenges are discussed here.

Inequality Inequality with reference to gender prevails across the world. Unequal status, unequal rights, unequal salaries, and unequal lives are features of gender inequality. From birth till death, one sees countless fixed notions about male and female, where women have to suffer as they are expected to look after homes; similarly, the baggage of running a family is on the shoulder of men. The ideas of inequality in gender are not intended to show one gender better than the other, rather, it is concerned with the kinds of role that have been defined to discriminate between genders. Yes, we all have to understand that there will be a huge difference between men and women in rural and urban areas. All such issues create problems between genders and become a cause for inequality.

Accountability and Responsibility It is important to understand that whether rights are given or not, until they are not exercised, they do not make any effect on people’s lives. Whatever rights have been made to promote equality for men and women, there are hardly any monitoring systems to ensure that these rights reach the right people. There is a clear lake of impunity with reference to women. This happened because of the poor judiciary system in India which provides space to exploit women. The process gradually became a part of any social system. There is a need to develop a specific kind of a stricter system where everybody is held responsible. Therefore, in the absence of clear accountability and responsibility, the whole idea of gender equality is misunderstood by common people and academicians.

Perceiving Women’s Contribution There is a specific way which has emerged and evolved over a period of time to develop a linear perspective about women’s contribution in various sectors of social, political, and economic lives. This linear thinking perceptive gradually starts expecting a specific role by both the genders (excluding the third gender). Women’s contribution was seen in family and later in markets, but is largely

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298 | Chapter 6 Understanding Gender Perspective seen with reference to family. This means that women working outside were mostly associated with work which is more related to house-related work. Gradually, their direct contribution in the market was recognised. However, they are largely associated with a few professions such as teaching, nursing, and so on, where there is less scope for men. Moreover, even after working outside, she was not exempted from family work or household work. In this way, the human rights of independent, working women were prohibited. It is also important to know that financial contribution to promote women’s education, jobs, business, and so on need to be strengthened with reference to women.

Policy-level Issues and Poor Monitoring If we really want equality among genders, we have to work on a multi-sectorial approach, which includes education, health, legal, social, and economic sectors. Policies must be developed keeping women’s issues and challenges in view. Generally, policies work on a standalone basis where an individual gets defeated and is not facilitated. Policies are made in favour of the capitalist world, where social justice, equality, and all such issues are not dealt effectively. Irrespective of whether policies are working properly or not, there are implementation-level challenges and other such questions and concerns that are not taken care of. People must be made aware of these policies. Hardly, any work is done in this regard. There are countless policies that people are not aware of. The monitoring system is equally poor at national, regional, and local levels.

Inappropriate and Insufficient Research It is an important point to highlight that the kind of research in this field is mislead, misguided, and one-sided, where one gender is always seen as an exploiter that exploits the other gender. The focus needs to be given on gender equality than gender rivalry. This rivalry leads to a kind of opposition, which, in reality does not help either gender and creates a kind of tension. Therefore, there is a strong need to generate a healthy research and discourse as far as gender equality is concerned. In the absence of such discourse, research conducted would present a limited and a one-sided perspective, which will not help in the long run to develop an egalitarian society.

Unattended or Neglected Field and Issues There are various issues and concerns that are unattended, untouched, or touched very superficially. The government has also made polices, rules, and regulations but there is very little obvious impact. Such issues include female foeticide, marginalisation, sexual violence, public health, education, and so on. All such issues need to be addressed on priority.

A Little Demand by a Person Who Gets Exploited Our society, particularly India, has many kinds of stigmas related to certain actions. Women and other oppressed sections do not dare go to the police or avail any such services, which are developed for them. It may also be seen that social pressure becomes more effective than legal one.

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The oppressed are bound in a moral dilemma through socialisation and as a result, they do not dare question the social system. On other hand, we know that the judicial system in India is not so active so as to automatically take cognizance of such issues. Such social pressure and stigmas demotivate a person to raise voice against the social system. Such stigmas include the following: • What will people and the service provider feel about me? • Native or biased perspectives about certain issues such as women should not do this or that task. • Socialisation through morality such as, if a woman is raped, her life is finished. • Aspiration for life and expected role to be played in the future. • Threat of economic dependability. • Hierarchical system of decision-making. • Poor legal knowledge.

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ The term ‘gender’ is used very often but not understood correctly. People use this term without completely understanding it. Our understanding of gender is based on the socialisation we have gone through in family and society. ➨ Sex is a biological concept which is directly related to reproductive organs and makes the first distinction between man and woman. It is purely physical and has no direct relation with society. ➨ One may find the term ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ interchangeably used. This interchangeable use is not correct. We need to understand that sex is biologically determined and gender is socially determined. We are born with a sex and society put us in the category of gender, which should not be associated with one’s biology. ➨ It is important to understand that we cannot understand gender as a binary system like 0 and 1, where both are distinct from each other; rather, we have to understand gender as a multiple array system. ➨ The kind of socio-economic and political scenario around us develops our understanding about gender. ➨ It is also important that the developed idea of gender is reinforced by society in one way or another. From pre-natal period to death, everything is categorised under gender—male or female. ➨ The role division in society creates a kind of hegemony of one gender over other, which is commonly known as patriarchy. ➨ Another idea which needs to be shared with reference to gender discourse is that the work done by women was degraded by feminist movement and it was tried to prove that the work done by women are lower levels of work. ➨ A stereotypical thinking can limit gender with reference to male or female. We must know that this category does not represent gender in its complete sense. There are people of the

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300 | Chapter 6 Understanding Gender Perspective third gender and within the third gender, there are various sub-categories which need to be acknowledged. ➨ It is also important to understand that there are various privileges given to one gender over another, which create unwanted discrimination in all spheres of life, in family, and in the public space. ➨ A person’s idea about oneself as a male, female, both, or nothing provides them a gender role identity. ➨ Expression of gender refers to the way people represent and express their gender identity to others. ➨ Gender role represents the kind of role expected by the society. Each gender has been assigned a role and one has to behave accordingly to fit into the system. ➨ The term sexual fluidity represents gender in a more open and flexible manner, which also opens the cage of fixed gender notion like a good boy and nice girl orientation. It provides fluidity in sexual and gender liking. One may feel like a boy at one point of time, and at other times, like a girl. ➨ If we really want equality among gender, we have to work on a multi-sectorial approach, which includes sectors such as education, health, legal, social, economic, and so on.

Check Your Progress 1. What do you understand by the term ‘gender’? Discuss how it is different from the term ‘sex’. 2. What is gender in quality? Illustrate with suitable examples from the Indian context. 3. Discuss the problems women have to face due of gender discrimination. How is patriarchy responsible for poor condition of women across the world?

4. ‘We need to understand gender discourse beyond male and female.’ Discuss the statement with suitable examples. 5. Elaborate upon ‘gender identity’ and ‘gender expression’ with suitable examples. 6. Discuss the following: (a) Gender fluidity (b) Policy-level issues and poor monitoring (c) Inappropriate and insufficient research

Objective Questions 1. A system where all spheres of life are dominated by male is known as: (a) Elite society (b) Egalitarian society (c) Patriarchy society (d) None of these

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2. ___________ is more related to masculinity and femininity. (a) Sex (b) Sexism (c) Gender (d) Patriarchy

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3. The term gender role refers to (a) expected action from a man and women. (b) male superiority over women. (c) biological difference between man and woman. (d) None of these

8. Myth of protection represents (a) man as a defender and woman as sheltered by man. (b) the challenges raised in contemporary role defined for women. (c) women need protection of men. (d) None of these

4. Gender socialisation means (a) family plays a more vital role with reference to girls than boys. (b) favouring boys over girls. (c) favouring girls over boys. (d) playing with one’s own gender.

9. Division of gender with reference to women represents (a) specific role defined for women. (b) increased representation of women across the world. (c) over burden on women. (d) None of these

5. Which one of the following is correct with regard to gender and media? (a) Movies only show the changed role of men and women as they happen in the society (b) Media always show the progressive role of men and women to be performed in society (c) Men are shown in modern roles, whereas women are shown in traditional roles (d) None of these 6. The doors of service sectors are open for women but are more open in which of following fields? (a) Semiskilled (b) Government sector (c) Private sector (d) Provisional 7. Which perspective is used to study linguistic sexism? (a) Consensus perspective (b) Conflict perspective (c) Feminist perspective (d) Interactionist perspective

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10. Globalisation impacts gender as (a) it does not make any change in the women situation. (b) it provides progressive opportunities to women. (c) it changes the equality rubric between men and women. (d) None of these 11. ________ is not a form of feminism. (a) Post-modern (b) Liberal (c) Environmental (d) Behaviourism 12. The idea of double burden with reference to gender represents (a) working in field and home. (b) gender equality. (c) social and personal life of women. (d) All of these 13. If a person has more than own wife, such a system is known as: (a) Polygyny (b) Polyandry

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302 | Chapter 6 Understanding Gender Perspective (c) Matrifocality (d) None of these 14. Which one of the following is not incorrect? (a) Men are stronger than women (b) Man possesses political power (c) Patriarchy exists in the world (d) All of these 15. Dowry must be seen as (a) social evil but necessary. (b) social evil to be removed.

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(c) social system to be organised in a better way. (d) social system to be followed as working in present. 16. Exogamy is a system which favours (a) marriage outside the group. (b) marriage in the group. (c) a system in Brahmins. (d) All of these

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CHAPTER

The Constitution

LEARNING OBJECTIvES • • • • •

Understand the concept of Constitution Explore about the need of Constitution with special reference to India Become aware of the processes of making of Indian Constitution Elaborate the Preamble of the Indian Constitution along with specific features of the Preamble Know about the processes of amendment in the Indian Constitution along with important amendments

INTRODUCTION In the last few chapters, we have studied democracy, government, and other concepts. It is important to know that there is a need to have some rules and laws which govern a system efficiently. These rules will be meant for the government and the citizens. Such rules and laws are known as the Constitution. The Constitution decides and provides the rights, power, and responsibility to people and the government. The rule of the nation is governed on the basis of its Constitution. In this chapter, we will largely discuss the Indian constitution and its concerns and procedures. There are some important questions which we will be exploring and we will try to understand the following in this chapter: what is the need for a Constitution? Who made the Constitution and how was it made? What are the processes to make the necessary changes in a Constitution? What are the basic values that a Constitution carries? What is the broad framework of the Constitution? The Constitution is the guiding force for any nation. It guides the legislature, executive, judiciary, and the people. There are nations that have unwritten Constitution such as Britain. However, nations like India need a written and well-spelt out Constitution. As there were differences and diversities at the time of freedom, to protect the rights of all, a written Constitution was required. It is interesting to discuss how the Indian Constitution was made. It will provide rationale to the Constitution, because we will also be able to know the contemporary situation and context. Before we move to discuss the making of the Indian Constitution, it is important to know why we need a Constitution at all.

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304 | Chapter 7 The Constitution

NEED FOR A CONSTITUTION We are aware that after freedom from the colonial period, there were the oppressed and the oppressor in the society. To provide them with equal rights and to protect people from fear, a written Constitution was needed. A Constitution was needed so that everybody’s rights and interests can be safeguarded. The maker of the Constitution was sure that everyone should get all the rights equally. They wanted to provide substantial social and economic rights to all citizens of India. A Constitution develops a feeling of trust towards each other, because it ensures security for all. The Constitution also explains how the government will be elected, the kinds of powers that will be used by it, and the manner in which it will be used. Along with this, the Constitution also limits the powers given to the government. It was kept in mind that the government cannot exploit the rights of the citizens. The Constitution carries values which motivate citizens to make a better and good society. An important point to keep in mind is that all countries having the Constitution may not be necessarily democratic but all democratic countries must be having a Constitution, either written or unwritten.

MAKING OF THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA What is the supreme law in India? The answer is very clear—the Constitution of India. The Constitution of India provides a framework of the rights, responsibilities, basic political principles, procedures and processes, power and duties, directive principles, and so on. Dr Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar is the architect of our Constitution. The Constitution is not a creation of the Parliament; rather, it is made by a constituent assembly, which had many members and was adopted by the people of India. The constitution assembly adopted the Constitution on 26 November 1949. This accepted constitution became effective from 26 January 1950. We celebrate this day as Republic Day every year. This document became the governing power or document other than the Government of India Act, 1935. Sovereignty, secular, socialist, and democratic republic are some important features of the Indian Constitution, which ensured justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity of the people of India. It is important to know that the Indian Constitution is a pool of many other Constitutions. Things appropriate to our context have been taken from various Constitutions of the world. Along with these Constitutions, various legislations available in India were also used. Some of such documents were the Government of India Act 1858, Indian Council Act 1981 and 1982, Government of India Act 1919 and 1935, and so on. The constituent assembly was an elected body of provincial assemblies. It took two years, 11 months, and 18 days to complete the draft of the Constitution. There were a total of 389 members in the constituent assembly. On 29 August 1947 a sub-committee was constituted to draft the Constitution. Dr B. R. Ambedkar was the chairperson of this committee. Some 2,473 amendments were disposed and discussed.

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Dr Ambedkar, Jawaharlal Nehru, C. Rajagopalachari, Rajendra Prasad, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Ganesh Vashudev, and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad are some of the important personalities who contributed their wisdom in drafting the Indian Constitution. Anglo Indians were represented by Frank and Mookerjee represents Paris. Space was given to the marginalized and minorities to contribute in the framing of the Constitution. It is also important to know that initially, Sachidananda Sinha was appointed the president of the constituent assembly; later, Rajendra Prasad become the elected member of the constituent assembly. Various subcommittees were constituted to speed up the work, such as the committee which was looking after for fundamental rights were constituted in chairmanship of Ambedkar along with other members. On 4 November 1947, the committee prepared a draft and submitted it to the assembly. Around 2,000 amendments were placed over a period of two years. After deliberation, the Constitution was adopted by the assembly on 4 November 1949. Totally, 284 members signed the Constitution. This day is known as National Law Day. It is interesting to know that the Indian Constitution is the largest written Constitution in the world. When it was accepted, it had 395 articles, 22 parts, and eight schedules. There were 80,000 words written in the complete document. According to available data, in 2015, there are total 448 articles, 25 parts, 12 schedules, five appendices, and 98 amendments to the Indian Constitution.

THE PREAMBLE OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION After becoming aware of the process of making of the Indian Constitution, we must understand the important features of the preamble of the Indian Constitution. There are various features one can talk about but it is important to know that no change can be done in the preamble of the Indian Constitution. Before explaining the features of the preamble, let us have a look at the preamble of the Indian Constitution as follows: We, the people of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic, Republic and to secure to all its citizens; Justice, Social, Economic, Political; Liberty of thought, Expression, Belief, Faith and Worship; Equality of status and opportunity; and to promote among them all; Fraternity, assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the nation; In our Constituent Assembly this, twenty sixth day of November 1949 do hereby Adopt, Enact and Give to ourselves this constitution.

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306 | Chapter 7 The Constitution It is important to know that the terms—socialist, secular, and integrity—were added to the Constitution later in 1976 by the 42nd Amendment.

We, the People The Constitution of India starts with the words, ‘We the people.’ These words have a deep meaning, which establish power in the people of India. It also makes a person feel that the Constitution is our creation and is not imposed on us by any government. It also shows a sense of unity. It means that the Indian Constitution believes in popular sovereignty. Popular sovereignty means that the ultimate source of power is people.

Sovereign State As per the preamble of the Indian Constitution, India is a sovereign state. It declares that India is no longer a dependent country; rather it is an independent nation, free to take its internal and external decisions without any external pressure. India is a free nation to make its internal and external policies without intervention from outside.

Socialist State Initially, the term ‘socialist’ was not incorporated in the preamble. Later, in 1976, it was added by an amendment. The term ‘socialist’ was incorporated to provide social, economic, and political rights and justice to the people of India. When we say socialism, it also means that the state will take responsibility for many things in the nation such as education, food, and so on. It is also important to highlight India a socialist democracy, but in the past few years, especially from 1991, India has adopted the idea of liberalism, moving more towards privatization. This is mentioned as the term ‘liberalization’ is not incorporated in the preamble but we are moving toward liberalization.

Secular State The preamble of the Indian Constitution declares India as a secular nation, where three things need to be understood. First, the state does not have any religion; second, the state will not discriminate on the basis of religion, and third, every individual has the right to follow any religion he/she wants to. Secularism was also included in the preamble by 42nd amendment in 1976. It does not mean that India was not secular before 1976, but it means that the secular nature became evident by the preamble after adding the term ‘secularism’.

Democratic State As per the preamble, India is a democratic country, where election decides the government, and establishes a fair system. The citizens of India were allowed to participate in all political processes.

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The elected government is responsible to the people and if people feel that the government is not working properly, in the next elections, they can reject that party and choose another one. The democratic nature also includes equal opportunities for all without any kind of discrimination.

Republic State India is declared a Republic state by the Constitution of India. It means the head of the nation will be elected rather nominated or being a Monarch. It also means that the head of the state can be in his/her office for a fixed number of years and there will be an election for the new head of the department after a fixed time. The President is the head of India, and is elected for a period of five years. There are no educational qualifications to become the President. Any citizen of India can become the President.

Justice Preamble ensures justice for all. The people of India have a right to justice against any kind of discrimination, social, economic, or political. Social justice ensures that there will be no socially privileged person in the society; rather, everyone will share equal social status. There will be no discrimination on the basis of caste, colour, religion, region, etc. Everyone enjoys equal social rights and justice. Similarly, economic justice talks about not discrimination on the basis of economic situation or condition. It also means that economic resources need to be shared among people. It should not be in the hands of a few. Opportunities must be given to all citizens to earn their livelihood. Right to political justice is also provided by the Indian Constitution. It means that everyone has a right to participate freely in political processes. It favours equal political rights to all without any discrimination and provides the right to freedom.

Liberty The Indian Constitution also provides liberty to all its citizens, which includes liberty of thinking, expression, faith, belief, and so on. Right to freedom also represents the right of liberty. The rights with reference to liberty also ensure and work towards secularism.

Equality Various types and kinds of equalities are given by the Constitution. It is considered the third objective of the Indian Constitution. The other two objectives are justice and liberty. It entails the idea of natural equality, where no discrimination is favoured and equal status of individuals is accepted. Equality provided by the Indian Constitution also talks about equality before the law and equality about all aspects of lives.

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Fraternity The success of any nation depends upon the fraternity among people. As a fourth objective, the Constitution promotes the feeling of fraternity. Collaboration, collectivism, and associations are the provided by ideas of fraternity. By doing so, a kind of faith is developed in national unity, which further enhances and strengthens the dignity of a nation. It is important to know that the Constitution was adopted on 26 November 1949 after the signature of the current president of the constituent assembly. The philosophical foundation of the Constitution is discussed in the preamble.

Procedure of Constitutional Amendments We understand that the Indian constitution is supreme in India, but there is a procedure to make needful changes as per time and requirements. There are three ways of making amendments to the Constitution. These are as follows: • Some regulations can be changed with a simple majority of the Parliament, such as establishing new states, reconstruction or reorganization of states, and establishing and dismissing the ‘Vidhan Parishad’ in states. • Some provisions can be changed with two-thirds majority of both the houses of the Parliament, along with the approval by a majority of state assemblies, which necessarily should not be less than half. This is applicable to election of president, power of central and state executives, central judiciary, and so on. • Most amendments to the Indian constitution can be done on the basis of two-thirds majority in the Parliament, but the majority must be the majority of the total number of member in the respective houses. It is also important to know that only the centre can initiate the amendment bill. States do not have this right. Any change in the federal nature of the state must be passed through the states.

SOME IMPORTANT CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS Table 7.1 Amendment in constitution Amendment Amendment in constitution number 1st

2nd

Applicable Where amendment was done since

18 June 1951 Special provision for socially and educationally backward people. Logical and reasonable limit on liberty to expression. Schedule 9 was added. The clause of upper limit in parliaMay 1953 ment was removed

Articles 15, 19, 85, 87, 174, 176, 341, 342, 372, and 376. Two new Articles were added— 31A and 31B Article 81 1 (b)

(contd)

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Table 7.1 (Contd) Amendment Amendment in constitution number

Applicable Where amendment was done since

4th 6th

April 1955 Article 31, 35 September Article 269 and 286 1956 January 1960 Article 334

8th

10th 15th 26th 35th 73rd 74th 86th 92nd 93rd

Property rights restricted Change in the list of taxes with reference to the centre and state Increase the time period of seat reservation for SC/ST and Anglo Indians in Lok Sabha

Including Dadra and Nagar Haveli in August 1961 Article 170 and a new article was the list of union territories added 371 A Increase the recruitment of high October 1963 Article 124, 128, 217 and 316 court judges from 60 to 62 Privy Purse was abolished December Article 366 was amended 1971 Including/ incorporating Sikkim March 1975 Article 80 and 81 was amended Panchayati Raj was accepted as 3rd April 1992 Part 9 was added level of administration in village 3rd level local administrative bodies June 1992 Part 9A was added (urban ) Right to Education till 14 years of age December Amended Article 45 and 51 A and 2002 added into Article 21 A Incorporated Dogri, Bodo, Maithili, January 2004 8th schedule was amended and Santhali as official language OBC reservation (27%) was accepted January 2006 Article 15 was amended

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ The Constitution is the guiding force of any nation. It guides the legislature, executive, judiciary, and the people. ➨ The Constitution was needed to protect people from fear, danger, and ensure that everybody’s rights and interests are safeguarded. ➨ Countries having a Constitution may not be necessarily democratic but all democratic countries must be having a Constitution—either written or unwritten. ➨ The Constitution of India is the supreme law of the nation. ➨ Dr Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar is the architect of our Constitution. ➨ The Constitution is not a creation of the Parliament; rather, it is made by a constituent assembly, which had many members, and was adopted by the people of India. ➨ The constitution assembly adopted the Constitution on 26 November 1949. The Constitution became effective from 26 January 1950. ➨ The constituent assembly was an elected body of provincial assemblies. It took two years, 11 months, and 18 days to complete the draft of the Constitution.

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310 | Chapter 7 The Constitution ➨ On 4 November 1947, the Committee prepared a draft and submitted it to the assembly. Around 2,000 amendments were placed over a period of two years. ➨ When the Constitution was accepted, it had 395 articles, 22 parts, and eight schedules. There were 80,000 words written in the compete document. According to available data, in 2015, there are 448 articles, 25 parts, 12 schedules, five appendices, and 98 amendments to the Constitution. ➨ There are various features of the Preamble as follows: ■ We, the people ■ Sovereign state ■ Socialist state ■ Secular state ■ Democratic state ■ Republic state ■ Justice ■ Liberty ■ Equality ■ Fraternity ➨ The procedure of amendment in the Constitution is possible in three ways—simple majority, two-thirds majority but above the simple majority of both the houses respectively, and twothirds majority along with the approval of states. ➨ There have been 100 amendments till date.

Check Your Progress 1. Why does a nation need a Constitution? Discuss with special reference to India. 2. Describe the making of the Indian Constitution. 3. Discuss the important features of the preamble of the Indian Constitution. 4. The Indian Constitution provides right to justice. Discuss with reference to social, political, and economic justice.

5. Why do we call India a sovereign nation? 6. Discuss the procedures of amendment in the Indian Constitution. 7. Discuss any three important Constitutional amendments.

Objective Questions 1. The constituent assembly adopted the Indian Constitution on: (a) 25 November 1948 (b) 26 November 1949 (c) 20 October 1949 (d) 26 January 1950

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2. On __________, the Indian constitution implemented or came into effect. (a) 25 January 1950 (b) 26 January 1950 (c) 15 August 1947 (d) 14 August 1947

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Unit III 3. Article __________ makes provision for national commission for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. (a) 337 (b) 338 (c) 334 (d) 339 4. The panchayat system was introduced in local administration at the: (a) Village level (b) Urban level (c) State level (d) None of these 5. The meaning of panchayat is: (a) Government of a village (b) Government by self (c) Gram Panchayati Raj (d) All of these 6. __________ is the chairperson of the rules committee. (a) The prime Minister (b) The president (c) The speaker (d) None of these 7. __________ was the president of the constituent assembly. (a) B. R. Ambedkar (b) Jawaharlal Nehru (c) K. M. Munshi (d) Mahatma Gandhi 8. Anti-defection is related to: (a) Fifth Schedule (b) Eighth Schedule (c) Tenth Schedule (d) Seventh Schedule 9. The constitution is a creation of the: (a) Parliament (b) Constituent assembly

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(c) People of India (d) B. R. Ambedkar 10. It took __________ days to complete the draft of the Indian Constitution. (a) Two years, 11 months, and 18 days (b) Two years, 10 months, and 18 days (c) Two years, 11 months, and 17 days (d) Two year, 12 months, and 17 days 11. The national day is celebrated on: (a) 4 November 1949 (b) 5 November 1949 (c) 26 January 1950 (d) 15 August 1947 12. How many members must sign the Constitution? (a) 284 (b) 2482 (c) 360 (d) 365 13. When the Constitution was accepted, it had: (a) 395 Articles and 8 Schedules (b) 395 Articles and 10 Schedules (c) 395 Articles and 12 Schedules (d) None of these 14. At present, there are ________ and __________ in the Indian Constitution. (a) 448 Articles, 12 Schedules (b) 395 Articles, 11 Schedules (c) 448 Articles, 11 Schedules (d) 395 Articles, 12 Schedules 15. The terms ‘socialist’ and ‘secular’ was incorporated in the Preamble by the: (a) 42nd Amendment (b) 44th Amendment (c) 48th Amendment (d) None of these

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312 | Chapter 7 The Constitution 16. India is a sovereign state. It means (a) India can take all the decisions (internal as well as external) independently. (b) India can take internal decisions independently but not external decisions. (c) India can take external deacons independently but not internal decisions. (d) None of these

(c) may or may not be republic. (d) None of these 19. The first amendment in the Indian Constitution was done on: (a) 18 June 1951 (b) 12 June 1952 (c) 18 June 1952 (d) 12 June 1951

17. We call India a Republic nation because (a) the head of the state is elected. (b) the prime minster is elected. (c) the head of the nation is nominated. (d) Indian is a democratic nation.

20. OBC reservation was accepted by the: (a) 93rd Amendment (b) 94th Amendment (c) 90th Amendment (d) 99th Amendment

18. All democracies (a) are republic. (b) need not be republic.

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CHAPTER

Parliamentary Democracy

LEARNING ObjECTIVES • • • • •

Become familiar about Parliamentary democracy Understand the differences between Parliamentary democracy and Presidential democracy Explore the versions within the different forms of Parliamentary democracy Elaborate the various features of the Parliamentary form of government Evaluate the merits and demerits of the Parliamentary democratic system of governance

INTRODUCTION India is a parliamentary democracy. The legislature provides powers to the executive and the executive is answerable to the legislature. It is important to know that in a Parliamentary democracy, the head of the government and the head of the state are two different people, but in a presidential democracy, the head of the state and the government would be the same person. The latter is seen in America and the legislature does not provide power to the executive. The United Kingdom and India can be seen as examples of Parliamentary democracy. Here, it is also important to know that the idea of a prime ministerial government emerged from the United Kingdom. The Westminster model of Parliamentary democracy prevailed in Commonwealth nations. A nation where there are two houses—upper house and lower house—is called a ‘Bicameral Legislature’. In a Parliamentary democracy, there are two houses; one will be elected by the people and is called a lower house and the second would be the upper house, where members would be appointed on various criteria. There are many countries in the world which follow the Parliamentary democracy but their way of working and functioning would be different. This difference may occur due to the process of the election of the prime minister, and the kinds of approval that the executive needs from the legislature. The form of accountability of the executive towards the legislature will also be responsible for this variation. Therefore, we can say that the Parliamentary government system carries a harmonious relationship of the legislature and executive. If we understand the Parliamentary democracy as discussed,

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314 | Chapter 8 Parliamentary Democracy it will give an understanding that the legislature is supreme but over a period of time, this power has been shifted to the Cabinet. To have a good and comprehensive understanding of the Parliamentary democracy, a few important characteristics have been discussed here.

Prime Minister is Appointed by the Head of the Nation but Elected by the People of the Nation The prime ministers work as a representative of the people as elected by the adult franchise, where, every citizen above 18 years of age participates in voting and votes for any political party. The party that receives the highest number of votes is declared the winner. The president appoints the prime minister from the winning party, but the prime minister is actually elected by the people.

Vote of Confidence The party that receives the highest number of votes has to gain vote of confidence within a given time; failure of which will lead to no formation of government and the party that received the second highest number of votes will be called to gain vote of confidence and this continues till the government is not formed.

Power of De facto The prime ministers of some nations have the power of de facto, which enables the prime minister to call for an election. Examples of such nations are Denmark, New Zealand, etc. The parliaments of some nations such as Israel have the right to vote for a new party or a re-election against the current government.

Constitutional Ruler It is important to know that all the posts get power from the Constitution. The state head has all the power but these powers are used by the Council of Ministers and therefore, the head of the state will not be the head of the government. This is also called titular rule.

No Separation of Power In all kinds of Parliamentary government, there is absence of separation of power, rather all parts or departments of the government work in harmony and share various functions and powers.

Lower House Has an Important Role in the Government In a Parliamentary Government, the lower house has an important role to play than the upper house. The lower house forms the government because it wins the election; therefore, more power resides in the lower house which forms the ministry.

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Accountability towards the Legislature It is important to know that all elected government or public representatives are accountable towards the legislature for their actions and decisions. Such provisions are done so that a control can be maintained over executive.

Collective Accountability There is collective accountability of ministers. It works on the principle of ‘swim together and drown together.’ The cabinet ministers are collectively responsible for any action and the ministry has to remain responsible for the concerned minister.

Prime Minister is the Leader of the Nation In a Parliamentary democracy, the prime minister is the head of the nation. S/he is a leader of the majority party and after becoming the prime minister, s/he enjoys many powers on the name of the president of the nation. His/Her status is equal to all the members of the cabinet but actually, s/he has more decision-making power. In reality, the prime minister is the actual leader of the nation and guides the nation’s policies and associated actions.

Existence of Opposition There is a great need to ‘create check and balance’ in all forms in a democratic nation. In such a situation, there is a great need of opposition in the democracy so that a kind of check or control can be maintained on the existing government. Existence of such opposition raises question to the government, which keeps control over the monopoly of the government. Therefore, a strong opposition strengthens Parliamentary democracy.

Powerful Cabinet The cabinet has to play many roles in a Parliamentary system and therefore, loss of power is being used by the cabinet ministers. The cabinet has to draft many policies, keeping national and international agenda in focus. It also takes necessary actions to pass various kinds of bills to effectively run a system. The cabinet also determines or fixes the agenda of the legislature at centre. The annual budget and other financial matters are also taken care of by the cabinet.

PARLIAMENTARY DEMOCRACY IN INDIA The reason for India’s road to Parliamentary democracy has a history. When India became independent in 1947, a crucial question was raised as to the kind of political system India will be adopting, on which all political and institutional structures will be developed. It was not very easy to take a decision because there were diversities in terms of caste, class, gender, and so on. These existed in their own interests and desires in a free nation. People like Jay Prakash Narayan

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316 | Chapter 8 Parliamentary Democracy were in favour of a rational and scientific system in polity. Mahatma Gandhi was in favour of a decentralised system, where moral ethics should be the guiding principles of polity. The need for economic development and political stability required immediate agenda. Accountability was needed towards the people of the nation. Here, it is important to highlight that the effect of the colonial nation (Britain) certainly influenced our political system and therefore, the Parliamentary democracy was simply adopted as a tool or device to run India as a nation, where the President is the head of the state and uses all powers through the prime minister (head of the government). The judiciary has its own significant role to play. The executive comes from the legislature and is also accountable towards it. The prime minister is the head of the executive. This head is not permanent and there is a provision of periodic elections. This provision was done to keep a control over the executive and its functioning. Political parties are another important feature of parliamentary system. There are parties with varied ideologies which work effectively in favour of Parliamentary democracy. Sometimes, these parties make the Parliamentary process difficult. Unorganised and unstable rules and legislature create problems for the smooth functioning of a Parliamentary democracy. Such a system will not be able to work for social welfare. Nor will it be able to deal with and cater to the needs of the people of a diverse nation. The Parliamentary system is also taken up at the state level, where ministers enjoy their autonomy and respect the federal form of system and unity of the union. Here, the state is independent but has a close relationship with the centre and keeps the Parliamentary spirit alive. However, it is also important to understand that in India, the Constitution is supreme and not the Parliament. The Parliament works according to the Constitution but can make necessary changes in the Constitution as per the need. These changes are subject to project the fundamental rights of the people of the nation. In brief, we can say that all the rules are legitimised by the Parliament. It is the responsibility of Parliament to maintain all kinds of individual and collective actions of members. It is also interesting to know that the Indian parliamentary system is different from the Westminster model. Here, the heads of the state are elected and not nominated like in the Westminster model. In India, the head of the state works as a rubber stamp, but another view says that s/he has substantial powers. When we refer to the Indian Parliament, we talk about Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, and the President collectively. These agencies have their specific roles to play which we have already discussed in the earlier chapters. It is also important to know that the President has enough powers with reference to the legislature. Any bill takes form of a legislation after it is signed by the President. Generally, the President does not stop it, but s/he may stop it if s/he feels there are some issues in the bill. In such cases, the bill will be sent back to the Parliament. The prime minister exercises more power than the President and therefore, this system is called the ‘Prime Ministerial form’ of government. The other ministers work under the supervision of the prime minister. If we evaluate our history, we can easily understand that instead of the prime minister, the Prime Minister’s Office (PMO) has become more powerful. Today, the PMO plays an important role in crucial decision-making.

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There is a fusion of the legislature and the executive in the Indian government, where the executive is selected out of the legislative and the executive is a branch of legislative in a sense. Here, it is important to highlight that if there is a government of a majority party, there is hardly any discussion on issues and policies; rather, the entire process becomes a mockery because with a clear majority, the ruling party can make laws and regulations as they want. The other house may create some delays but finally, the bill will get passed in favour of the majority party in the Lok Sabha. In all such discussion on Parliamentary democracy, one cannot forget the role of people of the nation in this regard. People give a mandate to a political party through adult franchise to form the government. Sometimes, this mandate is clearly given to one party and sometimes, there will be collation of two or more political parties. If we examine our history, such kind of clear mandate was given to Rajiv Gandhi, and was not given to other leaders of the Congress; but in 1989, the Congress faced great defeat in elections. Similarly, if we analyse the elections of the present government, we will be able to see that the BJP won at the centre with clear majority, but was badly defeated in the Delhi elections. What is more important here is that the people of the nation have the power to change their mandate during elections and the Indian Parliamentary democracy has seen this massive change in people’s mandate. All such events have made the Indian government unstable many times but the roots of Parliamentary democracy have not been shaken. Today, we see a mature and strong Parliamentary system. Though, there are some issues and problems, they are a sign of the developmental attitude of any governing system; therefore, we must take it as a positive side of an evolving Parliamentary democratic system. In brief, the executive head is not directly elected by the people of the nation, but s/he holds a position of a leader of a majority party, which receives clear mandate to form the government. The prime minister selects his/her ministers of cabinet (Members of Parliament only). The cabinet is accountable to the Parliament and if it loses confidence in the Parliament, the prime minister has to leave the office. The following features are present in a Parliamentary system: Power is centred on the Parliament. The head of the state and head of the government collectively constitute the Parliament. ■ The head of the government is appointed by the head of the state. The President appoints the prime minister, the leader of majority party. ■ Cabinet ministers are collectively responsible to the Parliament. ■ The head of the state can dissolve the Parliament as per the suggestions of the head of the government. ■ Collegiate system provides more power to the executive. ■ The appointed prime minister has full power to select ministers for the cabinet. ■ ■

This discussion provides us a comprehensive understanding of the Parliamentary government system. With this understanding, we will be able to evaluate the merits and demerits of the Parliamentary democratic system.

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ADVANTAGES OF PARLIAMENTARY DEMOCRATIC SYSTEM

Collectiveness and Togetherness of the Executive and the Legislature In a Parliamentary democratic system, the executive is a branch of the legislative and therefore, there is a possibility that laws will be made easily at the right time. It is known as a quick legislation, though a government may be made up after collation of various parties. In such cases, the situation may not be the same and various kinds of conflicts can be aroused. This system is different from the Presidential system, where election of the executive is different from the legislature and there are possibilities that a member of the legislature and executive belong to different political parties.

Division of Power In a Parliamentary governmental system, power is shared or divided at various levels and sectors but in a Presidential system, power is centric to the President. Therefore, collegial executive is the strength of the Parliamentary system. One can also say that the power is spared our in various political structures.

Permanent Upper House The Parliamentary system has one permanent upper house. The members change after a period of time; in India, it is one-third members every two years. The members are given a total time period of six years. This House provides strength to Parliamentary democracy as it represents the point of view of states. It provides time and space for discussion on any bill to make it more effective for the masses.

CRITICISM OF PARLIAMENTARY DEMOCRATIC SYSTEM One of the critiques of the Parliamentary system is that in almost in all forms of Parliamentary democracy, the head of the state is not directly elected by people of the nation. Therefore, the head of the state does not have actual political and other kinds of power. A collegial system is good for quick legislation but if we analyse this system, we will know that the executive becomes more powerful indirectly and the executive is a branch of legislature. In the absence of a clear mandate, a kind of malfunctioning can be created in the Parliament, which hinders the process of legislature and executive. The permanent House of the parliament has a great role to play in legislation. However, it has very limited power on various kinds of bills in comparison with Lok Sabha. This power decreases as far as the financial bill is concurred.

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Another point which is important to mention here is that there is no independent body (in the true sense) which can oppose the decision taken by the Parliament. Therefore, there is hardly any substantial control of the legislative power of the Parliament.

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ India is a Parliamentary democracy. In a Parliamentary democracy, the legislature provides powers to the executive and the executive is answerable to the legislature. ➨ In a Parliamentary democracy, there are two houses—one will be elected by people called the lower house and the second would be the upper house, where members would be appointed on various criteria. ➨ There many countries in the world which follow Parliamentary democracy but still their way of working and functioning would be different. This difference may occur due to the process of election of the prime minister, and the kinds of approval the executive needs from the legislature. ➨ The prime minister is appointed by the head of the nation but elected by the people of the nation. ➨ The prime ministers of some nations have power of de facto, which enables prime ministers to call for elections. Some such nations are Denmark, New Zealand, etc. ➨ In a Parliamentary government, the lower house has an important role to play than the upper house. ➨ The elected government or public representatives are accountable towards the legislative for all actions and decisions. ➨ There is collective accountability of ministers. It works on the principle of ‘swim together and drown together.’ ➨ The existence of an opposition raises questions to the government, which keeps control over the monopoly of the government. Therefore, a strong opposition strengthens Parliamentary democracy. ➨ Mahatma Gandhi was in favour of a decentralised system, where moral ethics should be the guiding principles of polity. ➨ The executive comes from the legislature and is also accountable toward it. ➨ Unorganised and unstable rules and legislature create problem for the smooth functioning of parliament democracy. ➨ The head of the state can dissolve the Parliament on the suggestion of the head of the government. ➨ The collegiate system provides more power to the executive. ➨ The collectiveness and togetherness of the executive and legislative, division of power, and permanent Upper House are the most important positive aspects of Parliamentary democracy.

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Check Your Progress 1. What do you understand by the Par liamentary democratic system? Discuss with examples. 2. What are the differences between Parliamentary democracy and Presidential democracy? 3. How are parliamentary democracy cabinet ministers collectively responsible towards parliament? Give a few examples to substantiate your points.

4. Write a brief note about the following: (a) Role of opposition in Parliamentary democracy (b) The power of de facto (c) Power of the Upper House in the legislative processes 5. Discuss the merits of a Parliamentary democracy with appropriate examples. 6. What are the demerits of a Parliamentary democracy? Argue with suitable examples.

Objective Questions 1. We cannot consider the Indian Parliament as a sovereign institution because (a) it does not abide by the Constitution. (b) it can make laws on the centre list as well as the state list. (c) the judiciary system of India can review the laws made by the Par liament and suspend them if found unconstitutional. (d) None of these

2. Who has the power to decide on election petition? (a) Judiciary (b) Parliament (c) Election commission (d) None of these 3. The tenure of a member of Lok Sabha is: (a) Two years (b) Four years (c) Five years (d) Six years 4. Which one of the following methods is not correct by which the legislature keeps control over the executive?

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Supplementary question Questions Both (a) and (b) None of these

5. How are members of the Rajya Sabha elected? (a) Through the elected members of the state legislature (b) Elected directly by the people of a particular state (c) Through the state legislative council and assemblies (d) Through the state legislative council 6. The duration of a member of Rajya Sabha is: (a) Six years (b) Five years (c) Three years (d) None of these

7. PMO has: (a) (b) (c) (d)

Conventional base Constitutional base Both (a) and (b) None of these

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Unit III 8. The Parliament can make laws on: (a) Concurrent list only (b) Union list only (c) State list (d) Both (a) and (b) 9. A ‘bicameral legislature’ represents (a) legislature which is elected. (b) single assembly. (c) parliamentary form of government. (d) combination of lower and upper house. 10. The members of lower house of the Parliament are elected by: (a) People directly (b) People indirectly (c) Appointed (d) None of these 11. The Indian Parliament comprises the: (a) Prime minister (b) President and Lok Sabha (c) Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha (d) Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, and the President

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12. The cabinet ministers are accountable towards the: (a) President (b) Government (c) Parliament (d) Judiciary 13. The Executive is responsible to the: (a) Parliament (b) President (c) Governor (d) None of these 14. The power of de facto means the (a) Prime minister can call for an election. (b) President can call an election. (c) Election commission can call an election. (d) None of these 15. Mahatma Gandhi was in favour of a (a) decentralised political system. (b) centralised political system. (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these

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CHAPTER

Social Justice and the Marginalised

LEARNING ObJECTIvES • • • • •

Become familiar with the concept of marginalisation and the marginalised Explore the reasons for marginalisation Elaborate upon the issues, concerns, and challenges of the marginalised Understand the situation of marginalised groups in India Understand the way to improve the marginalised situation

INTRODuCTION Understanding marginalisation is an easy as well as a complicated concept. In a broad sense, we are all marginalised in some way or the other because we share different ideas, perspectives, personality traits, culture, and so on. When we try to understand marginalisation in its political sense, it carries a different meaning altogether. Margins refer to the area left blank or ignored, like when we write on a note book, some space is left on all sides of the page. This left-out page is called a margin. Similarly, in a society, there are people and groups that are left out from the main stream and pushed or left at the margins in the process of various kinds of development—whether it is education, social, economic, and political reforms. Their participation is made negligible in various sectors. Overall, people left aside from the mainstream are called the marginalised. However, the ideas and discourse of marginalisation do not end here; rather, it begins here. It is important to see marginalisation in the framework of diversity, inclusion, and mainstreaming with reference to equality as a right and as a value simultaneously.

EXPLORING MARGINALISATION Have you observed or can think of some marginalised group around you? What language do they speak? What kind of festivals do they celebrate? If we take an example of an adivasi, can you explain who they are and how they live near you? The term ‘adivasi’ means original inhabitants who generally live near or in the forest. ‘Around 8% of India’s population comprises adivasis and many

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of India’s most important mining and industrial centres are located in adivasi areas—Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bokaro, and Bhilai among others. Adivasis are particularly numerous in states such as Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, and in the north-eastern states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura.’ (Social and Political Life-III, NCERT Textbook, pp. 83) However, it is also important to highlight that they have now migrated to various places and regions across India. We also need to understand that the adivasi is not a hom*ogenous category. The total percentage of adivasis in India is about 8 per cent of the total population. All marginalised groups have to face stereotypes. For example, adivasis are presented as people who resist development, education, social change, etc. Their clothing styles, thinking patterns, and way of living are presented in a preconceived notion. You must have attended various school programmes where adivasis are presented as a person in a colourful dress, headgear, and a specific kind of dance. Such preconceived notions and stereotypes mislead new learners and they are stuck with such stereotypes. It is also important to understand developmental aspects with reference to adivasis in detail. Adivasis are experts in their surroundings. However, the modern definition of development does not allow adivasis’ lives enter in its domain. The whole idea of development has reduced to infrastructural development with huge buildings and fast life. Continuous intervention in the lives of adivasis has created a conflict zone where Adivasis are being exploited. The argument behind doing so is that the government wants to bring them to the mainstream but this very idea goes against the strength of diversity. ‘A recent survey report by organisations working among adivasis shows that 79 per cent of persons displaced from Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Jharkhand are tribals. Huge tracts of their land have also gone under the waters of hundreds of dams that have been built in independent India.’ (Social and Political Life-III, NCERT text book, pp. 86). Thus, the marginalised sections have been classified on the basis of various criteria such as caste, class, language, race, religion, gender, and so on. It is important to know that all these groups may overlap with each other such as an economically backward person can also be a social outcaste or may belong to the minority language group. One person or a group can also be excluded from active political participation. We also need to know that there is no need to mix marginalisation and minorities. There are people who may be a part of the minority but many not be marginalised, such as people of any business house. Here, we must conduct tri-fold discussions about marginalisation. First, what is the process of marginalisation and second, whom are we considering as marginalised and why are many groups marginalised? The existing and evolving theoretical perspective such as Marxism, new classical theory of Economics, among others came up with the discourse of social exclusion. The base of a new classical Economic perspective towards and about marginalisation is to view marginalisation from an individual point of view which moves ahead to cultural resistance

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324 | Chapter 9 Social Justice and the Marginalised and individualism. On the other hand, the Marxists’ view believes that marginalisation prevailed due to capitalism. According to Marx, the observed agreement and consensus in society is fake and a forced consensus created by the police, army, or illusion is presented by capitalists. Consequently, many people are left out and gradually become marginalised. India also has various kinds of marginalised groups but fails to explain who we are considering as the marginalised or minorities. This ambiguity is still present in the Indian context. There is always confusion about it as we call Muslims as a minority and sometimes as marginalised sections too. Similarly, women are considered as marginalised groups as well. Such confusion leads towards faulty policies and poor implementation of such policies. In this globalised world, we need to understand that a nation like India has failed to fulfil the basic needs of its citizens. Marginalisation cannot be understood from a certificate; rather, new dimensions have to be added so that benefits can be extended to the poor and needy sections. There is a need for a strong monitoring process not only to monitor the benefits, rather to find out and locate people who are actually marginalised. People and children begging on signals are not hidden. I, you, and the politicians see them and talk in meetings and conferences but do not do anything to take them out from such situations. We argue that we need a system and individual help will not work effectively and keep waiting for a systemic change. Meanwhile, generations of such people have passed by and lost somewhere in their dark worlds. Policies such as right to education and so on are being celebrated. Such dichotomy always hinders progressive change and we keep changing our stand and arguments for debates in conferences. These people have merely become a group of data collection for researchers. Further, we must know that the economic system, social structure, and their networking with each other play a crucial role to understand the whole idea of marginalisation. Understanding these two aspects separately will not help unfold the idea of marginalisation. The combined perspective may take us to the reasonable notion of equality, if not, ideal form of equality. The liberal world also imposes a special kind of hierarchy in various forms. One such form is a job or a service, where ‘who gets what’ is somehow pre-decided such as who cannot speak good English will hardly get a job in an established private sector and policies will also promote the same. On the other hand, educational policies argue for education in the mother tongue, and this contradictory stand creates huge unemployment among the educated people.

ANALYSING MARGINALISATION After exploring the ideas and a few important concepts related to marginalisation, we must try to understand reason for their poor situation. One may attribute many reasons for this but availability, accessibility, and approachability are the basic concerns which need to be analysed. These three aspects can be analysed with reference to education, rights, and various kinds of services. There is no proper procedurally institutionalised way, process, or structure to make goods and

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services available, accessible, and approachable to all. The following dimensions help us to understand further problems and concerns about the marginalised: 1. They have been left at the margins and therefore, have become disadvantageous. 2. They have to face countless prejudices, biases, and preconceived notions. 3. They face ignorance and rejection and are treated as if they are not human beings. 4. They face problems in the name of mainstreaming. 5. They live in the interiors and all development takes place far away from these places; therefore, they do not get immediate facilitation. 6. They face extreme poverty which forces them to live in the worst situations. 7. Governmental schemes do not reach these people and groups. To have a broad perspective on marginalisation, we can take two examples to elaborate. Let us take the example of Dalit women. Later, in the chapter, we will try to understand the issues and problems of the aforementioned groups along with how can we move ahead to facilitate them to have a dignified social, political, and economic life.

Dalits We are a socialist nation which ensures rights and equality for all people through the Constitution. However, on other hand, we are also a liberal nation where a majority of things are left in the hands of the market. The very idea of welfare state was evolved as a safeguard for liberalisation and the state changed its role to ensure and provide fundamental things to people in a welfare state, where education—after being a fundamental right—has become a welfare task of the government. In such a situation. it will be tough to provide and ensure equality among people. Dalits can be taken as an example, where one can see a huge gap between policy and practicality. They face problems from hunger to sexual abuse and sometimes, it reaches to the level of death. One can find many examples where Dalits face problem even at their own places, which sometimes work as a push factor for them and they migrate to different places. These problems are economic, social, and political. It is known that a majority of people in the Dalit community is poor without proper jobs. Most of them are still working in unorganised sectors or as agricultural labourers. Some are still engaged as scavengers. At one side, we talk about a progressive nation and on the other hand, we fail to provide needful support to people. Their basic needs are water, food, shelter, and clothing; education comes very late in their lives. All programmes launched in this regard hardly reaches them. Though it is important to highlight that within the Dalit community, those who have reached a higher level are not more concerned about the rest of the poor Dalits and begin considering themselves as a separate category. There is a great need to break this gap between Dalits and non-Dalits. Attitudinal change is needed than physical transformation. The mindset needs to be changed than clothes and perspectives need to be changed than only demands. Their isolation is not merely economical; rather

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326 | Chapter 9 Social Justice and the Marginalised it is deeply rooted in the conscious and unconscious nature of social life. The main target needs to be changed and should focus on this conscious and unconscious nature of social life.

Women Women are always treated as second-grade human beings, who are subordinate to men in a social system. Women face problems, or rather, discrimination, in many aspects of life. The family starts this discrimination and there is no end to it. The family is a well-accepted hierarchical system. Though, constitutionally, men and women are equal in all spheres of life, reality is something different. Most decisions of a woman’s life are taken by men, whether they are fathers, husbands, or sons. What a women studies, how she lives, what she wears, are all decided by men. However, there are women who are independent and have understood the importance of being free and therefore, are living a free life because they have a sense of achievement which other women do not have. Gradually, there is change happening but not in the required form. Constitutional assurance also somehow failed to provide equal space and justice. It is important to know that women have significantly contributed to agriculture and associated fields; yet, they never had control over economic tools. Economic tools refer to productive assets such as land, technologies, and so on. They face a venerable situation because of the prevailing socio-cultural practices, rituals, and traditions. Further, polices and schemes made for women largely fail to deal family-driven biases and practices. It is also interesting to know that property rights have been given to women constitutionally and legally but in reality, women are socialised in such a way that they themselves leave the property or transfer it to the brothers in family. Therefore, there is a great need for social policy. The government has to change his attitude about policy-making and policy implementation. Certain steps need to be taken by the government to provide space to women to be equal to men. The state has to ensure its policies which are egalitarian not in terms of theory but also in practice. It must ensure that women also have control over assets and not only income. When we refer to women control, it does not mean that everything needs to be taken back from men and put him in a situation of have nots, rather it means to ensure equal rights and responsibilities towards available assets. As has been said earlier, social policies need to be strengthened. Social polices need to be based on in-depth studies of social context so that the root problem can be addressed. Social policy can be seen as a strong base for women empowerment. Finally, the challenge of the government is to develop an inclusive environment where men and women get equal spaces to lead their lives without discrimination, exploitation, and biases. It is important to keep in mind that this inclusion should not be integration and not mainstreaming. Recognising diversity and working towards a cohesive social system should form the base of governmental policy and practice. In this discussion, we have seen Dalits and women as marginalised groups and tried to explore and understand their problems along with a few workable solutions; social policy is one of the strong solutions proposed.

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There is also a need to implement social justice. Social justice means that the issues are emerged from social lives and economic and political aspects utilise them as per their needs. Therefore, there is a great need to work towards social justice, where everyone gets equal space, whether they are minorities of cities, villages, or ethnic groups.

DOES MARGINALISATION MATTER Yes, marginalisation matters because we all are human beings and are born equally and this character of humanness is fundamental to all of us, which entitles us to be equal, and if nothing like this happen, our self, personality, existence and entire life is threatened. We have to work towards optimism where everyone can breathe freely and not be burdened with any baggage of marginalisation. This optimism to live together motivates us to think and work towards abolishing marginalisation and not the marginalised. Therefore, there is a need to address the issues of marginalisation within the various social categories (religion, caste, classes, family, etc.) to go beyond these categories for a just society. The basic thought behind optimism is humanity.

What Needs to be Done for Social Justice There are many things which can be done to provide space to exercise one’s rights. In this regard, a few broad ideas are discussed. Many sub-points can be merged within these points.

Promoting Fundamental Rights The Indian Constitution provides various fundamental rights to all its citizens to live with dignity and peace without any kind of exploitation. These fundamental guidelines have compelled states to make laws for the marginalised. Article 17 of the Constitution states that untouchability has been abolished—what this means is that no one can henceforth prevent Dalits from educating themselves, entering temples, using public facilities, etc. It also means that it is wrong to practice untouchability and that this practice will not be tolerated by the democratic government. In fact, untouchability is a punishable crime now.(Social and Political life, Class VIII, chapter 8, p. 95, NCERT). There are many other Articles and provisions which provide strength to the marginalised community in India as follows: Article 14: Equality before law Article 15: Prohibition of discrimination on the basis of caste, class, religion, etc. Article 16: Right to equal opportunity of employment The Constitution of India provides equal space and opportunity to all its citizens to seek justice if something wrong has happened to them or if they have faced any kind of exploitation. It is important to highlight that the judiciary system is very complex and expensive and that majority of people are not able to use the judicial process.

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Working toward Social Policy Social policy is a relatively new term which argues beyond political outlook and orientation of rights. It argues in favour of policies based on social need and for social development with social optimism. All these elements of social policy will take policies to a different level to create a humane and peaceful society, where one is not only entitled to use his/her rights but also actually practise those rights. Examples given in the discussion regarding property rights explain this scenario in an effective way. Policies based on social orientation will be able to deal with various kinds of problems related to policies and their implementation.

Promoting Social Justice by Making Laws Especially for the Marginalised To promote social justice, there is a great need to frame special laws for marginalisation. As we know, there are common rights given to everyone by the Constitution. However, some laws are needed especially for the marginalised to make them equal to all so that they can equally access common rights. These special provisions such as education, economic and political rights excel their ability to exercise their rights. These special rights would be for a certain duration and after the tenure, there should be a review to scrutinise people who have reached a particular level.

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ Understanding marginalisation is an easy and a complicated concept. In a broad sense, we are all marginalised in some way or the other, because we share different ideas, perspectives, personality traits, culture, and so on. ➨ Around 8% of India’s population comprises adivasis. ➨ Adivasis are particularly numerous in Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, and in the north eastern states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura. ➨ Thus, the marginalised have been decided on various criteria such as caste, class, language, race, religion, gender, and so on. ➨ Adivasis are presented as special persons. People think about them with a pre-conceived notion and bias which create a misleading understanding in the learner about them. ➨ Intervention in Adivasis life has created a conflict zone between adivasis and rest. ➨ We also need to know that there is no need to mix marginalisation and minorities. ➨ The base of new classical economic perspective towards and about marginalisation is to see marginalisation from an individual point of view which moves ahead to cultural resistance to individualism. ➨ The Marxists’ view believes that marginalisation prevailed due to capitalism. ➨ India also has various kinds of marginalised groups but it always fails to explain who we are considering as marginalised or minority.

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➨ Marginalisation cannot be understood from a certificate; rather new dimensions have to be added so that the benefits can reach the poor and the needy. ➨ We must know that the economic system, social structure, and their networking with each other play a crucial role to understand the whole idea of marginalisation. ➨ The liberal world also imposes a special kind of hierarchy in various forms. One such form is the job or service, where ‘who gets what’ is somehow pre-decided. ➨ We are socialist as per Constitution but actually our all policies and practices are liberal in nature. ➨ There a need to work in social policy if we would like to bring in changes.

Check Your Progress 1. What do you understand by the term ‘marginalisation’? Take a few examples from the Indian context to elaborate. 2. How will you differentiate between the marginalised and the minority? Elaborate with suitable examples. 3. Discuss the constitutional provisions available to protect the rights of the marginalised? Take a few examples to elaborate. 4. Discuss the issues and challenges faced by a Dalit as a marginalised group. Provide suitable arguments to support your answer.

5. Knowing that existing polices and provisions are not facilitating marginalised groups, what would you suggest to improve their situation and make them empowered? 6. What do you understand by ‘social policy’? Discuss with suitable examples. How can social policy become a powerful tool to work towards more inclusive policy-making?

Objective Questions 1. Which one of the following statements is correct? (a) The marginalised cannot be a minority. (b) The marginalised must be a minority. (c) The marginalised may or may not be minority. (d) None of these 2. Adivasi areas are found in: (a) Gujarat and Rajasthan (b) Tamil Nadu and Kerala (c) Jammu and Kashmir and Haryana (d) All of these

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3. The reason for marginalisation is presence of: (a) (b) (c) (d)

Various regions Various religions Various languages All of these

4. Why are a few people marginalised? (a) (b) (c) (d)

They are in a minority To benefit a few people Both (a) and (b) None of these

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330 | Chapter 9 Social Justice and the Marginalised 5. Who are called adivasis? (a) Tribals (b) Inhabitants (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these

6. The total percentage of adivasis in India is __________ of the total population. (a) around 5% (b) around 8% (c) around 3% (d) None of these 7. Where do adivasis live? (a) In forests (b) Near forests (c) Near cities (d) Everywhere 8. Adivasis are (a) necessarily primitive. (b) necessarily traditional. (c) necessarily backward. (d) None of these 9. Important metals are found in: (a) Cities (b) Rivers (c) Forests (d) All of these 10. __________ and linguistic minorities are given special provisions by the Indian Constitution. (a) Regional (b) Religious

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(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these 11. Generally, people associate marginalisation with: (a) Disadvantages (b) Poor and powerless (c) Prejudices (d) All of these 12. Marginalisation has become a reason for: (a) Equal rights (b) Unequal education (c) High social status (d) Freedom for all 13. Migration happens due to the: (a) Pull factor (b) Push factor (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these 14. The relatively strong way to deal with the issues of minority and their rights is to work towards: (a) Political policy (b) Social policy (c) Economic policy (d) None of these 15. Marxism believes that marginalisation exists because of: (a) Capitalism (b) Socialism (c) Conflict (d) Consensus

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Unit IV

Pedagogical Perspectives and Issues

Chapter 1

What is Pedagogy

Chapter 2

Issues and Challenges of Teaching-Learning Social Science

Chapter 3

Classroom Processes, Activities and Discourse

Chapter 4

Developing Critical Thinking

Chapter 5

Sources: Primary and Secondary

Chapter 6

Evaluation in Social Science

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CHAPTER

What is Pedagogy

LEaRninG objEctiVES • • • • • •

Understand the concept of pedagogy with respect to various thinkers Engage with issues, challenges, and concerns about pedagogy and pedagogical processes Visualise the role of teachers with respect to pedagogy Understand the pedagogic beliefs of various schools of thoughts Develop critical perspective about participatory approach to pedagogy Explore the comprehensive environment for comprehensive pedagogy

intRoduction Pedagogy, methodology, and teaching strategies are used interchangeably; however, there is huge difference between these terms and using them interchangeably will ruin the actual meaning of pedagogy. Actually, pedagogy is a larger concept, and it is not possible to just study it in a classroom context. In its wider sense, it is a process of explaining, elaborating, and engaging with any phenomena. Therefore, it becomes comprehensive method rather than simple methods and strategies. In other words, it can also be said that methods and techniques can be part of pedagogy. In a classroom context, pedagogy deals with many things together, which includes learner, learning, knowledge, textbooks, methods, techniques, discussion happening in class, classroom environment, and so on. Pedagogy in its actual sense can be understood as a practice with praxis along with theoretical construct. It deals with the concern of how to teach or provide opportunities to learner to learn reflectively, which provide enough opportunities to understand, and analyse the social life and social events. Pedagogy provides a comprehensive outlook towards life and associated concerns. Paulo Freire can be taken as an example where he talked about his way of teaching ‘critical pedagogy.’ It provides a wider, critical, and reflective process to challenge the oppression of the suppressed. It liberates learner from slavery mindset, and provides knowledge and consciousness. Critical pedagogy managed to do this because it incorporates the background of the learners, their contextual issues, their experiences, and so on. Therefore, pedagogy is an outlook and way to perceive, learn, establish, and use of knowledge to become liberate.

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334 | Chapter 1 What Is Pedagogy Therefore, we have to understand it very clearly that pedagogy is not only teaching in a class or transacting content to the learners but also associated with thinking and practicing it. Teaching is a very specific task, whereas pedagogy has to deal with larger concerns. In recent past, numerous works have been done on pedagogy with respect to various disciplines including sciences, social sciences, and languages. These works provide a comprehensive understanding about pedagogy not only on particular subject but also in general. ‘Critical pedagogy,’ ‘Social pedagogy’, and ‘Folk pedagogy’ can be taken as examples. Before we move ahead to understand the pedagogy and pedagogy in detail, we should understand the very meaning of education so that we can make better sense of pedagogy and pedagogical processes.

Education Although it is very difficult to summarise the meaning and nature of education in few worlds, some understanding about what education is all about is essential. Therefore, we will try to discuss about education rather than presenting any definition. It is a fact that we generally replace education with schooling, which limits the meaning of education in a well-surrounded concept: however, it actually does not help to understand the meaning of education. What is taught by teacher is not education, rather what one construct out of that would be education. Education is not something that can be given. This can be proved with a very simple example: let us imagine that we are teaching in a class and talking to everyone equally, but can we make sure that every student will learn the same thing from our teaching. Precisely not; this is because what you talk is information for them and what they will construct out from that information will be their knowledge. Freire also criticised the banking concept of education and he discusses about education that liberates. Education provides criticality, reflectivity, and consciousness and this results in a selfaware and educative person. Education cannot be understood as money that can be given to anyone, rather it has been constructed with one’s efforts. Education can be understood in terms of bringing out your abilities, and therefore, along with individualised process, it is a social process too. Dewey called education as a process of living rather than a preparation for future. Pestalozzi talked about the development of hand, head, and heart is education, and Gandhi favoured the development of heart, mind, and soul together is education. Therefore, we can say that education is not only about knowing or gathering information but also developing knowledge; using this knowledge, we make life better, humane, and peaceful.

TEACHERS’ ROLE IN PEDAGOGY It is important to understand that the teacher’s role in education and pedagogical processes had been changing. It has moved from ‘giver’ to ‘facilitator’. This shift that is presented here is explained in a simple manner; however, it is not that simple. It carries a full historical legacy with it. However, we are not discussing it here in extensive details. Still, we must know that assumption

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about learner, learning, and knowledge has changed over a period of time, and therefore, the role of teacher has also changed. Further, now, we do not perceive learner in a passive role, rather accept their agency in learning process. Similarly, the idea of learning has also changed and it has moved from ‘given’ to one’s ‘own construction.’ Along with this, the meaning of knowledge has also moved from universal facts to contextual realities. These shifts have also changed the role of teachers from who knows everything and fills knowledge into empty pictures to a facilitator of learners who are in the process of constructing their own meanings and knowledge. Teachers have to develop trustworthy relationship with learners where learners may discuss all their issues, concerns, and challenges without any kind of hesitation. Environment that provides space to learn is very important for learners. Their agency as a student must be accepted and respected by the teacher. Table 1.1 beautifully explains the various schools of thought and their understanding of pedagogy along with suitable examples. Table 1.1 Pedagogy understanding by various schools of thought School of thought

Pedagogic understanding

Examples

Behaviourism

Teacher centric, learner at receiv- Lecturing, common way of teaching, ing end, explicitly visible outcome of mastery over skill learning

Constructivism

Child centric, learner as active con- Project work, individual teaching prostructor of knowledge, teacher as cesses, focus on adaptation rather than facilitator on recalling

Social constructivism

Child centric, learning as social pro- Collaborative learning, learning as comcess, knowledge is socially embedded munity practice, reciprocal teaching– learning process

Critical theory

Learner a reflective human being, Evaluating, exploring, elaborating, critiknowledge is contextual and carries a cally reviewing, focusing on both theory hidden agenda, engagement in social and its implication (praxis) life with critical view

CREATING CONTEXT FOR PEDAGOGY There are many theorists who have worked extensively about pedagogy. Here, we are not talking about pedagogy in class, rather pedagogy as a concept in broader sense. However, we would like to talk about three major contributions in this field named Paulo Freire, Bernstein, and Bruner. Freire’s book Pedagogy of the Oppressed is classic in this regard and it soon became the reference material for almost all educationists. Freire was more interested in questioning the suppression, and therefore, he discussed about critical pedagogy to make people liberate. Bernstein elaborates about the class and culture and their role in people’s life; further, he explained how few people rule over other’s life and control them. Finally, Bruner is associated with folk pedagogy,

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336 | Chapter 1 What Is Pedagogy who argues about the role of socio-culture context in learning process. He floated the idea of ‘socially embeddedness’, ‘contextual knowledge,’ and so on. Pedagogy cannot be understood only in terms of teaching practice in a class. Moreover, it is an experience all together, where it is an art, science, and craft also. Therefore, it is very clear that pedagogy is not an instrumental process, rather it is a constructive process that incorporates ‘be with learner’, ‘provide caring’, and ‘associative learning and education with lives.’ In this context, to be with learner means to hold their hand whenever they need support in their development process. They should feel comfortable about the availability of someone in needful situations. This availability of teacher will develop trust, faith, and commitment in learners. Similarly, caring means that teacher should have caring nature towards learners. Teacher should be there when learner needs care and support in learning process. The sense of caring cannot be given or developed in one day, rather it takes enough time to develop such concerns. Finally, associative learning or education in daily life means to make linkage between school education and daily life. It is important that what we learn should be utilised in life. Although, we would like to assert here that utility does not only mean the way it has been perceived by pragmatic school but also it has more comprehensive meaning all together. It is to be understood that a good teaching does not provide or deal with techniques for learning, rather it provides space and opportunities to engage with the discourse, which takes them to the search for identity, harmony, and integrity. Therefore, fixed methodological process and techniques will not help learner to be developed at their best. Still there are three basic questions which we would like to highlight here: is pedagogy age specific?, can pedagogy be seen outside the school?, and is pedagogy an art, science, or craft? Yes, as far as school teaching is concerned, pedagogy is age specific. It is because learners understand the world through the lenses of their own experiences, and as they grow older, their experiences also get widen. Therefore, pedagogy needs to be changed as per age or developmental level of learner. What are their abilities, capabilities, and so on? However, the second question says that can pedagogy be seen outside the school and it has more elaborate answer. Of course, as discussed earlier in the chapter, pedagogy has to be seen in a wider context. Here, it means the way pedagogy has been understood by Freire, Bornstein, and Bruner. It is a way of understanding and acting in actual life, and it may be understood with respect to education, politics, and our daily life. Finally, third question needs to be discussed separately. Those who believe pedagogy as science says it is an organised way of helping others to understand certain things. This entire idea moves around technical rationality and objective rationality, which takes it epistemology base or stance from scientific approach or method. However, the ideas of pedagogy as art or craft move around the social science paradigm. When we say social science paradigm, we mean its subjective nature, which actually understands pedagogy as a reflective and subjective process. The work of Donald Schon’s can be referred here as a master piece. It perceives pedagogy as a tool that helped in day-to-day life, which helps a person to decide or chose the life they want to live. In all, we have to see pedagogy in a comprehensive way that is not restricted to teaching–learning process.

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Teaching may be one of the important aspects of pedagogy but not synonym of pedagogy; however, it can be said that teaching is a necessary condition of pedagogy but not sufficient condition.

HOLISTIC SENSE OF PEDAGOGY To understand the meaning of pedagogy, we may ask few questions to a teacher: what they think about themselves as a teacher? What and how they understand about education? What is their view about learner, learning, knowledge, and society? What role they see of learner in education and learning process? What kind of citizens they want to produce for the future? Where they want to see our future society? Understanding these questions and their answers will facilitate our thinking about pedagogy. Generally, pedagogy is misunderstood with teaching, which actually restricts its scope to few methods and techniques of teaching. However, abovementioned questions indicated that the notion and concept of pedagogy is far deeper than teaching, which moves from an individual student to the development of society. The question is what is the quality of a teacher or who is a good teacher or which is important for a teacher: teacher with good subject knowledge or good pedagogical understanding? Surely, content is important but pedagogical strength is an essential quality of a good teacher. However, what pedagogy is all about has been understood differently by different people. Teachers, doctors, lawyers, engineers, and policy makers have taken pedagogy in different ways. As we know science has dominated social science for good number of years with the name and for the sake of ‘scientific methods’, where everything was looked and studied around this method. This approach need to be criticised and discredited. It imposes positivism on social science, and therefore, on pedagogy also. The positivism is largely associated with reductionist, deterministic, and independent, which failed to explain pedagogy comprehensively. Therefore, interactionist and interpretive perspective came up with good strength that deals with socially constructed, creative, and liberal perspective that provides a better understanding to pedagogy. Further, Watkins and Mortimore (1999) discussed about pedagogy as ‘craft’, which was discussed earlier. However, this idea was also not able to sustain longer as it failed to incorporate the critical reflective perspective during pedagogic processes along with the very nature of learner, learning, knowledge, and society. A different perspective was shared by Beetham (2007) regarding pedagogy. He argued pedagogy as a process of facilitating and guiding learning process and try to establish a close relationship between teaching and learning including learner and knowledge, where one person consciously facilitates the learning of another one. Furthermore, Moon (2009) explains pedagogy as a multidimensional process that includes theoretical understanding, belief system, and so on; however, it actually executed with respect to learners in actual live situations. In this sense, they make sense of pedagogy with respect to theory, its understanding, and its applicability in daily life. From this point, the whole idea of pedagogy moves beyond the classroom; further, it is discussed with respect to socio-political and economic lives that will make a learner to know the importance of their contribution to the development of democratic, humane society. For this,

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Understanding

Application

Figure 1.1 pedagogy gets associated with policy, politics, culture, and rationality to explain itself as a social process, which is deviated from the dominated positivism. Learner has a very special place in entire pedagogical process where he/she has to see and evaluate his/her position with respect to policy and power relation. The knowledge given or presented to them influenced the way they will understand the social and political life. Therefore, it becomes important to develop abilities in learners to become evaluative and critical as they have no control over the knowledge decided for them. Whose knowledge and who decides and how it is decided are the questions that need to be analysed by learners. These abilities will be developed in an democratic school setup where respect, rights, responsibility, humanity, collaboration, and so on are integral part of the school system; hence, largely it can become social system with the help of the learners who will get education from such school systems. Further, such society will strengthen democracy; it not only strengthens political democracy but also economic democracy (Bowles and Gintis). Here, we reject the idea of mechanistic and universal way of explaining pedagogy; rather, we favour the idea of multiple perspectives, which is very much contextual. We do not consider pedagogy as simply balancing the view of learners, rather it is providing challenge to the existing scenario; this very idea also questions the concept and process of equilibration given by Piaget, where a child try to do equilibration in the situation of dis-equilibration. Pedagogy provides criticality than simple adaptation in a democratic society. It also provides ample opportunities to learners to use their agency in school as an active participant in learning process to develop critical thinking and make citizen aware about liberal democracy. Pedagogy does not satisfy the curiosity of learners, rather it motivates to raise questions. It helps to raise doubts and promote the process of being to becoming. However, all this is possible with a participatory approach. Next section will deal with the understanding of participatory approach of pedagogy.

EXPLORING PARTICIPATORY APPROACH TO PEDAGOGY It is an approach that can be understood with respect to inclusive perspective. This approach is in favour with the idea of social justice where all are respected and given opportunities to grow. It deals with the idea of collaborative task where teachers and learners work together to set and achieve the goals. These goals are set to deal real-life complexities, so that a better life orientation

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can be given to learners. It believes in various ways to achieve a goal but the ways must be based on social justice and equality. Another aspect that is important to highlight here is that this approach tries to make sense of teaching, learning, and knowledge in a wholesome perspective and it does not see them in isolated manner. Therefore, participatory perspective does not deal only teaching and learning processes but also it engages with the knowledge development process; further, it is also used in social life to deal various kinds of problems, issues, and challenges. It works with two folds of objective: for dealing with immediate support, help, or scaffolding and for dealing with future concerns. Participatory pedagogy uses education for all approach; that is, education for disabled and non-disabled learners. In this pedagogy, everybody is treated at par but with special needs. Therefore, it does not favour the idea of individualised process of education; rather, it favours inclusive process of education. It does not argue for the success of the school, rather it talks about the appropriate environment in schools that can facilitate the learning. Ever changing nature of education and influence and role of political and economic powers in education create a very uncertain environment for teachers and learners; this is what we call knowledge keeps changing as per the power struggles. Participatory pedagogy tries to deal with all such issues to some extent. Largely, participatory pedagogy constituted with various concepts or ideas or aspects such as inclusive understanding, individualised process of learning and instruction, and diversity. Inclusive understanding is one of the important requirements for participatory pedagogy. Inclusion is a term, which is very complex and unclear to many of us. However, it is sure that it is not only for children with special needs but also deals with larger perspectives. Inclusive teacher needs to know about him/herself with respect to others so that a comprehensive environment can be created in a class to provide better opportunities for learning. Inclusion rejects the idea of any kinds of differences in school and tries to make sense of these differences with respect to social and economic capital, equality, justice, and community acceptance. Wider differences will increase the differences in the school, and in future, this difference will develop a sense of ‘I’ and ‘others.’ To avoid all such situations, a positive mindset needs to be developed. This positive mindset will help learners to understand themselves with respect to prevailed social scenario. For this, a healthy community of practice needs to be developed where learner will actively engage with the concerned issues and aspects. They will be able to talk and analyse about dominant ideologies and will make sense of themselves. Further, they will also be able to develop their self-belief system rather than an imposed system. This ability of creativity will make them actually sensitive and reflective human beings, who will largely contribute towards creating better citizens for the world. Individualised process of learning and instruction is another important aspect of participatory pedagogy. Today, we all are aware of the fact that everybody perceives the world from their own lenses that are acquired through their life experiences. Therefore, it is important to know how children learn and how they understand the given or available situation. The process of understanding and learning is very much individualised; however, society and our environment

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340 | Chapter 1 What Is Pedagogy influence our individuality. The kinds of book we read, the kind of media we are exposed, the kinds of choices available to one, and so on are important contributing factors in our understanding; it is not only about ourselves but also about others. These sources provide information and we construct our own meaning based on those information. However, reality is not so simple; this construction is highly governed from the exposure we have gone through. Further, most importantly, we have no choice, which is based on free will; rather, we have to choose from the available choices. In such a complex scenario, how one can claim to be independent and exercise their free will. Participatory pedagogy will provide spaces for a person who will not only choose from the available options but also develop options to choose. For this, an individualised but collaborative learning process is needed. Diversity is also a very significant dimension of participatory pedagogy. First, the idea of diversity may look in contrast with individualised process; however, actually it is not. Furthermore, it is an approach to deal with individualised process and individualised process helps to understand and deal with diversity. Therefore, there is no necessary contract between these two terms. It is a fact that our society is with numerous diversities, and therefore, our classes will also be with full of diversities. Participatory pedagogy views diversity as an opportunity than problem, but converting this diversity into opportunity is a challenge for which teachers need to be prepared. This will not end with teacher’s preparation but the mindset of society also needs to be inclusive. We will not recommend that they need to change; however, there is a need to understand others’ perspective and how others perceive a thing wrong, which we might think that it is absolutely correct. This can happen only when we become sensitive towards diversity. Further, this will include various dimensions simultaneously; these dimensions include students, flexibility, knowledge about subjects, evaluation and classroom context, and environment.

Use of Participatory Pedagogy It is not only enough to simply talk about criticality or critical thinking about pedagogy but also it is necessary to implement and see the use of this pedagogic perspective. It is also important to understand the participatory pedagogy emerged from constructivist and situated cognition approaches, where communities of practices are favoured. The application part of this pedagogy may be understood with reference to Personal Learning Styles Pedagogy (PLSP). The PLSP incorporates the understanding of individual needs and learning processes. It not only discussed about the baseline pedagogic processes but also talked about learner’s choice, centric role of learner, respecting initiating point of learner, providing space for meta-cognitive thinking processes, importance of facilitation and support, incorporating contextualised engagement, and so on. The personal learning style pedagogy works around many dimensions. First, one has to understand and explore the learners’ knowledge, beliefs, and understanding for providing appropriate support and facilitation. Here, it also becomes important to explore the learning histories of a learner so that a holistic understanding can be developed about the learners’ experiences,

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which will help to develop a need-based environment for better learning. Second, one has to be careful for choosing learning style for learners. This style cannot be selected arbitrarily, rather a thoughtful engagement is required for this purpose. Obviously, the first point will facilitate in selecting the style. An integrated perspective will facilitate learning, where integration is needed between the learners’ past experiences, which cause for their belief system and the style that the learner tends to be engaged with. This integration will surely develop the comprehensive perspective for learning. This integration will also happen between cognition and socio-cultural context of learners. Third, one needs to be aware not only about learners’ context, but also their sensitivities. This sensitivity will develop a sense of belongingness with learners and their associated issues and concerns. It also incorporates the emotional needs of the learners, develops positive environment, and respects new beginning of learners with full emotional support along with their social context. Fourth, one has to develop an optimistic learning environment, where many things will have to be taken care; for example organising learning resources and integrated teaching processes which incorporate cognition, attitude, and social context, helping learner to engage in positive, critical, reflective thinking processes, and so on. This environment must provide space for engagement, elaboration, exploration, and construction. Largely learning environment must include criticality, authenticity, reflectivity, analytical, meta-cognitive process, and so on. Fifth, one has to respect and accept learners’ agency in class, where learners have space not only for choosing from available options but also developing options of their choice. Learner’s voice and existence should be not only acknowledged but also accepted. Such learner’s agency will automatically develop a sense of commitment towards learning. They will take ownership of their learning. To provide such space, process has to be flexible in nature, where enough space is available for accommodating various ideas proposed by learners, whether it is collaborative process or individualised process. Disused ideas, which were explained earlier, provide reasonable opportunities for individual learning processes based on learner’s personal style. Vygotsky’s concepts such as assisted learning, scaffolding, and mediation are seen as very crucial and significant aspects in guiding the learning processes; in these processes learners work both independently and they work based on their needs, and therefore, appropriate help is provided to facilitate their zone of proximal development. Teachers have to understand that the development of selfregulation capability is the necessary condition for facilitating self-governed learning processes. This regulatory capability will develop gradually and will take time to reach the level of maturity. Here, maturity deals with cognitive, affective, and emotional aspects of an individual. In other words, self-regulation is associated with cognitive process, meta-cognitive process, and emotional process. The cognitive process involves in developing memorisation, analytical, decisive skills, while metacognitive process involves in developing coordinating, developmental, adjustment, and critical reflection skills; finally, emotional processes helps in developing motivational, execution, characteristics, and emotional skills.

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ENVIRONMENT FOR COMPREHENSIVE PEDAGOGY On the basis of aforementioned discussion, it is difficult to list out few points about what is pedagogy; this is because it provides a comprehensive perspective about pedagogical process that is different from students’ engagement approaches to pedagogy, where it is considered as an approach to control the system. As far as the reader of this chapter is concerned, we can talk about few points in little detail to give a comprehensive perspective. Table 1.2 provides a good understanding about the required environment. Table 1.2 Features of required environment 1.

Supportive, collaborative, and productive environment

There is a need to develop healthy teacher–student relationship, where everyone will respect and value other’s knowledge, ideas, and perspectives. This must involve collaborative task to produce productive outcomes.

Respecting diversity

It is necessary to boost learner’s self-concept by providing space to develop their self-esteem. This can be ensured when each learner will enjoy some kinds of achievement. Therefore, setting common goals for all would not be in favour of learners.

Freedom, interrelatedness, and self-motivation

A kind of freedom or independence is advocated here, where learner learns to take responsibility of their learning. This freedom will be actualised with respect to interdependency of learners among themselves and with teachers. Further, such environment will surely develop the learner to control over motivation, where they will be able to know where, how, and for what to be motivated.

Respecting learners’ socio-cultural context, needs, understanding, and perspectives

Social constructivism surely a good approach to learning, if understood and applied correctly. Therefore, one has to understand the role of learners’ socio-cultural background, their needs, and their perspectives towards various concepts in teaching–learning process. For this, a flexible pedagogic process is needed so that each one gets his/her space in learning engagement. Variety of strategies may also be used to provide the individual diversity with inclusive perspective.

Promoting critical thinking, cognitive ability, and application

There will be a great need to develop connection between various concepts, ideas, and so on for better learning engagement. Cognitive skills can be developed by providing challenges to the existing knowledge. Environment that provides space for the applicability of learned knowledge is appreciated.

Evaluation as a part of teaching–learning processes

It is important to understand evaluation as an inherent part of teaching– learning process. We consider learning as ongoing process, and therefore, assessment is also an ongoing process, which incorporates reflective and analytical tasks. Such evaluation will have larger agenda than only assessing what learners know. It will develop platform about the future course of action for learners as well as teachers.

Beyond classroom

Education can be understood as restricted process that takes place only in classroom; rather, it is a comprehensive process that not only incorporates content from society but also pedagogic process. Learning will take place in communities of practice.

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SUMMARY In conclusion, it can be said that the pedagogy has been used diversely in different fields. Policy makers, teachers, and lawyers have used pedagogy in different ways. They all use it according to their purposes. However, still defining pedagogy is a tough task. It is a complex concept to understand and to explain. We cannot simply restrict pedagogy with teaching–learning process as it incorporates various other dimensions such as educational theories, policies, personal learning style, and larger social context. Therefore, it is very difficult to say that pedagogy can be understood as teaching–learning process. Pedagogy has to be understood as linkages between theory and practice. It can be seen as process of facilitating the engagement of learners to explore, elaborate, and explain the concept with the understanding that these concepts are not restricted to the textbook, rather they have their implications for larger society. Bernstein said ‘pedagogy is a sustained process whereby somebody(s) acquires new forms or develops existing forms of conduct, knowledge, practice and criteria from somebody(s) or something deemed to be an appropriate provider and evaluator’ (Bernstein, 2000). His idea revolves around two models: performance model and competence model. Performance model discusses about the direct relationship with students’ learning such as what to do and how to do, whereas competence model can be understood as indirect relationship with learners. It is a salient way of dealing with learners, for example, their individual needs. Therefore, pedagogy has been seen as both action and discourse, which includes teachers’ beliefs, knowledge, perspectives, and attitude about learner, learning, curriculum, and knowledge.

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ Pedagogy cannot be understood as synonym of teaching–learning process. ➨ Pedagogy involves the larger processes such as political, social, and economical processes. ➨ Pedagogy is used in various ways in different professions such as policy maker, educationist, and lawyers. They use it to serve their purpose. ➨ Critical pedagogy, social pedagogy, and folk pedagogy are some of the well-known types of pedagogy. ➨ Pedagogy in education needs to be understood with respect to educational theories, curriculum, teaching–learning processes, assessment, social context, and so on. ➨ A good pedagogy will provide opportunities to learner by involving them in critical, reflective, analytical, sensitive activities and also in social and other associated issues and concerns. ➨ Teachers have a very specific role with respect to pedagogy and it can be understood as a facilitator or a guide. ➨ Paulo Freire, Bernstein, and Bruner are the pioneers in the field of critical pedagogy. ➨ Participatory approach to pedagogy provides a comprehensive perspective where the idea of inclusion also involved.

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344 | Chapter 1 What Is Pedagogy ➨ A comprehensive pedagogy can be understood by the following characteristics: supportive, collaborative, and productive environment (a) Respecting diversity (b) Freedom, inter-relatedness, and self- motivation (c) Respecting learners’ socio-cultural context, needs, understanding, and perspectives (d) Promoting critical thinking, cognitive ability, and application (e) Evaluation as a part of teaching–learning process (f) Beyond classroom

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1. How do you understand pedagogy? Is it similar to teaching–learning process? Justify your stand with suitable examples. 2. Why various schools of thought on education advocate different kinds of pedagogic process? Elaborate with suitable examples. 3. Discus the perspectives of behaviourist, constructivist, and social constructivist on pedagogy. Which perspective provides a better explanation of pedagogy? Discuss with suitable examples. 4. What role do you conceptualise of a teacher in teaching–learning process? 5. Explain the following term with respect to pedagogy: (a) Be with learners (b) Provide caring

(c) Associative learning and education with learners’ life 6. How Freire conceptualises pedagogy? Discuss with suitable examples. 7. Elaborate the idea of pedagogy discussed by Bernstein and Bruner? In the case of pedagogy, what are the similarities and differences between their concepts? 8. What is participatory approach to pedagogy? Discuss the main characteristics of this approach. 9. If you consider yourself as a teacher, then how can you develop a comprehensive environment in class to provide better spaces for knowledge construction? Provide suitable examples for supporting your argument.

Objective Questions 1. Pedagogy is associated with (a) classroom and benches. (b) methods and techniques of teaching. (c) black board and text books. (d) All of these 2. Pedagogy deals with (a) students and teaching staff. (b) students, parents, and school governing body.

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(c) non-teaching staff of school along with principal. (d) a larger perspective to understand the engagement with some concept or phenomenon. (e) None of these 3. Critical pedagogy belongs to: (a) Rabindranath Tagore (b) John Dewey

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(c) Plato (d) Paulo Freire 4. Liberating learner from slavery mindset and providing knowledge, and consciousness is the idea of: (a) Liberal pedagogy (b) Social pedagogy (c) Critical pedagogy (d) Folk pedagogy 5. Dewey called education as (a) information around us. (b) factual understanding about society. (c) process of living. (d) preparation of future. 6. Who favoured the development of heart, mind, and soul together as education? (a) Pestalozzi (b) Dewey (c) Freire (d) Gandhi 7. Triple ‘H’ concept of Pestalozzi is known as the (a) development of health, height, and hair. (b) development of hormones, head, and heart. (c) development of heart, mind, and soul. (d) development of hand, head, and heart. 8. Education is not only (a) developing and using knowledge. (b) knowing and gathering information. (c) making life better with humanity. (d) All of these 9. In behaviourist pedagogical understanding, child is: (a) An active participant (b) A passive participant (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these

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10. A teacher’s role needs to be understood as a (a) only source of knowledge. (b) creator of knowledge for learners. (c) facilitator for learners. (d) manager of a class. 11. Pedagogy of Oppressed is written by: (a) Bernstein (b) Bruner (c) Gandhi (d) Freire 12. Folk pedagogy argues about the role of (a) family content in learning process. (b) psychological content in learning process. (c) pedagogical content in learning process. (d) sociocultural content in learning process. 13. The concept of contextual knowledge is associated with: (a) Critical pedagogy (b) Liberal pedagogy (c) Folk pedagogy (d) Behavioural pedagogy 14. Pedagogy needs to be changed or modified as per: (a) Age of the learner (b) Developmental level of learner (c) Requirement of the class (d) None of these 15. Social science pedagogy is: (a) Subjective in nature (b) Objective in nature (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these 16. Which one of the following is the essential quality of a good teacher? (a) Command over content (b) Ability to discipline a learner

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346 | Chapter 1 What Is Pedagogy (c) Patience (d) Self-governed 17. In a larger sense, pedagogy can be used for (a) implementing government policies in school. (b) implementing school principal’s ideas in school. (c) facilitating and guiding learning process. (d) All of these 18. Which one of the following will be the best explanation of pedagogy? (a) Practice with theoretical construct (b) Constructing theory with practice (c) Understating theoretical underpinning of any construct (d) None of these 19. What is the ‘banking concept’ given by Freire? (a) Teachers know everything and children know nothing (b) Teachers teach everything to learners because they know nothing (c) Depositing money in back account (d) None of these

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20. A good classroom provides (a) space and opportunities to learners. (b) latest technology for learning. (c) various ways of learning. (d) directing learners about their learning. 21. The aim of critical pedagogy is to develop (a) reflective citizens for democracy. (b) successful professional. (c) best teacher. (d) effective teacher. 22. Participatory approach to pedagogy refers to (a) inclusive perspective of pedagogy. (b) socio-psycho perspective to pedagogy. (c) technocratic perspective to pedagogy. (d) personalised perspective to pedagogy. 23. Participatory pedagogy perceives diversity as a: (a) Problem (b) Challenge (c) Opportunity (d) Motivation

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Issues and Challenges of Teaching–Learning Social Science

CHAPTER

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • Understand the objectives of teaching of Social science at various level of school education • Engage with issues, challenges, and concerns about pedagogy and pedagogical processes of social sciences • Explore the debates and issues of Science versus social science • Understand the possibilities for improving pedagogy of social science

INTRODUCTION The problem and issues of teaching–learning Social sciences emerge, when the nature of social science understood wrong. We have already discussed the nature and pedagogy of social science. On the basis of the understanding of these two chapters, now we will try to explore the problems, challenges, and issues of teaching–learning Social science. Social science has been misunderstood from various points of view, and mainly, it is an amalgamation of History, Geography, Political science, etc. There is a great need to understand social science in its own way that has its existence beyond this amalgamation. We have to understand that teaching–learning Political science does not mean just to interact in the class or simply try to transfer the information available in book; rather, it is complex process that helps a child engage with the concern discourse. To understand teaching–learning Social science beyond simply transferring information, this process will be more meaningful to both the learners and the teachers. Before we move ahead and discuss about the issues and challenge of teaching Social science, it is essential to understand the objectives of teaching of Social science. National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2005 articulates these objectives at various levels such as primary stage, upper primary stage, secondary stage, and higher secondary stage. Here, we are more concerned about secondary stage; therefore, first, we would be discussing about the overall objectives of teaching of Social science and then objective of teaching Social science at secondary level.

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348 | Chapter 2 Issues and Challenges of Teaching–Learning Social Science According to NCF 2005, studying the Social sciences is vital for many reasons. It enables children to: 1. Understand the society in which they live – to learn how society is structured, managed, and governed, and also about the forces seeking to transform and redirect society in various ways. 2. Appreciate the values enshrined in the Indian Constitution such as justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity and the unity and integrity of the nation and the building of a socialist, secular, and democratic society. 3. Grow up as active, responsible, and reflective members of society. 4. Learn to respect differences of opinion, lifestyle, and cultural practices. 5. Question and examine received ideas, institutions, and practices. 6. Acquire pleasure in reading, by providing them with enjoyable reading material. 7. Undertake activities that will help them develop social and life skills and make them understand that these skills are important for social interaction.

OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING SOCIAL SCIENCE AT SECONDARY LEVEL (NCE 2005) The objectives of teaching Social sciences at the secondary stage are to develop among the learner analytical and conceptual skills to enable him/her to: 1. Understand the processes of economic and social change and development with examples from modern and contemporary India and other parts of the world. 2. Critically examine social and economic issues and challenges such as poverty, child labour, destitution, illiteracy, and various other dimensions of inequality. 3. Understand the rights and responsibilities of citizens in a democratic and secular society. 4. Understand the roles and responsibilities of the state in the fulfilment of constitutional obligations. 5. Understand the processes of change and development in India in relation to the world economy and polity. 6. Appreciate the rights of local communities in relation to their environment, the judicious utilisation of resources, and the need for the conservation of the natural environment. According to the objectives discussed previously, Social science provides a large framework to learner to understand and critically evaluate the social process and socio-political life. However, we also know that there are many issues, problems, and challenges exist to achieve these objectives, which create hinders in attaining them. These issues and challenges are social, institutional, and political and so forth. In the following sections, the issues and challenges are discussed in detail.

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Subjective Knowledge It is clear that the nature of knowledge in Social science is subjective. Dealing with subjective knowledge is very challenging, because teachers have to deal it without bias. The nature of knowledge in Social science is very diverse and has enough space for subjective interpretation. Sometimes this subjective space is appreciable, but at some point, it becomes difficult to handle. This subjectivity creates challenges in dealing social science effectively. Hence, it is clear that social science cannot be studied purely scientifically, but over subjective space creates challenges.

Teaching for Main Streaming Social science deals with diversity and one of its aims is also to make people understand the diversity with acceptance. However, Social science teaching in school faces problem that it also teaches to develop faith in mainstreaming, which does not go with very nature of social science and therefore with teaching of Social science. This mismatch creates problem with the entire discourse of social science and teaching of Social science. This probably goes against the objective of social science where respecting diversity is one of the main objectives. This objective gets defeated when we try to put everybody on same path. The scope of multiplicity, diversity, and acceptability of others get shrunken because of main streaming process.

Teachers Are Not Trained to Teach Social Science as They Are Specialised in One Subject As we know, social science has its own nature that is different from simple amalgamation of all the subjects like History, Geography, Political science, etc., but still give the essence of all the subjects mentioned here. However, university and even teacher education programme prepare teachers primarily according to their main subject. But the teachers have to face problems while teaching Social science at school. Their teaching is governed by their primary subject. Their orientation and teaching of Social science get restricted through one of the Social science subject studied by the teacher. For example, a person with M.A. Political science faces problem with the idea of geography and economic and so forth. Therefore, there is a lack of effective trained teachers in Social science.

Highly Influential by Teachers’ Bias Another challenge which Social science has to face is that it can be biased from teachers own biases. There is a high possibility that teacher understands a concept in a particular way that is his/her personal perspective. However, this perspective will influence the teaching and teaching– learning opportunities provided to leaners. It develops a specific kind of venerability with reference how Social science is to be taught. The idea of bias in social science itself is very problematic

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350 | Chapter 2 Issues and Challenges of Teaching–Learning Social Science because, in social science, if not explicitly, but implicitly, a specific kind of ideology get promoted. It is problematic because it does not provide enough space to learner to think critically about any concept. Learners surely get influenced by teachers and therefore from their ideology also. This process socialises them in a unitary way, which dismisses the existence of bias less learning process.

Negative Perspective about Social Science Social science has always been considered as second-grade subject. Both teachers and student consider that Social science is a useless subject that does not have any association with their life and carrier, and therefore, more emphasis is given to Science subjects than Social sciences. This idea has been propagated not only by teachers but also by parents. This is a very crucial challenge facing by Social science these days. If we move ahead and see the selection of streams after class 10th, Social sciences are generally opted and given to the students getting lesser marks in the examination. Gradually, a kind of negative perspective has been developed about social science, which needs to be changed.

Teaching of Social Science A subject depends about the knowledge it entails but how this knowledge is presented to the learners is more important. It has been observed in many studies that Social science has been taught very superficially and largely through lecture method. This method does not match with the nature of social science, and therefore, it loses its pedagogic strength. Lack of using appropriate pedagogic processes student also loses their interest in the subject. Therefore, there is a great need to develop better pedagogic ways to deal with social science, and hence, learner’s interest can be maintained. Social science need to be looked beyond ‘rote learning’, where learner only learns facts and figures; rather, there is a need to develop it as a conceptually sound subject with rationality, and for this teaching, learning processes need to be revisited. Constructivist approach will not help, and one has to move beyond it to make is a life subject for human development.

Nature of Social Science There is a problem about the clarity of the nature of Social science, as some understand it as a simple combination of all the subject come under Social science, that is, History, Geography, Political science, etc., whereas other believes that social science is not simple combination of all the these subjects; rather, it is beyond that and need to be understood with reference to all the subjects mentioned earlier but beyond the mechanical combination. Social science has been understood only as History, Geography, etc., by most of the teacher. However, what emerged out of these subjects, which develops the premises of social science has not been taken seriously by them. This confusion and lack of clarity about the nature of social science affects not only its content, moreover, its pedagogic processes also.

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What to Teach in Social Science It is another challenge in front of Social science and teaching of Social science that what to teach to the learners. This field is so vast and divers that it becomes very difficult to choose about what to include and what to leave. Whose knowledge will be accepted and whose will be rejected, how and why. Social science teacher sometimes see themselves in difficult situation, where they feel helpless as they are not clear about selection of content, and therefore, teach them what they want to tell to the learners. Again the question of subjectivity and objectivity can be discussed here in this regard. This uncertainty gets transferred to learners and they will get socialised in same way. This chain does not end and simply develop a kind of confusion about what to teach in Social science.

Over Simplification of Social Science It is very problematic when we start explaining things in over simplify manner. This creates problems with reference to thinking and learning ability. Over simplification of a concept makes brain dependent on simple conceptual explanation. However, whenever and wherever, we have to deal with complicated concept that we feel helpless or struggle a lot with it or sometimes give up. Social science is a subject that has been understood simple. One can hear ‘Social science mein kya hai ye to asaan hai’ about social science. Therefore, teacher also teaches Social science in a manner as it does not have any importance and explain the concept in a very generic manner, which at long run put a negative effect on learners’ ability. Therefore, over simplified teaching in Social science is gradually become a challenge.

Gap between Teaching of Social Science and Dealing with Societal Problem Social science is considered as it does not have any kinds of Social relevance. It is taught, just to pass the examinations, which has not concern with daily life problems and concerns. Hardly, efforts are made to develop linkages between Social science and social problem and gradually the subject, which is of high social relevance become socially irrelevant. The problem resides in the pedagogic process and how and in what way the content is presented to the learners. This gap ultimately, weakens the strength of Social science as a socially useful subject. It depends largely on teachers’ attitude towards subject. If teachers deal with Social science from the point of view of textbook and examination, it can never be made a subject of its own strength.

Lack of Promoting the Skills of Thinking, Questioning, Critical Analysis, and Decision Making Social science has been seen as subject to be taught for rote learning, which simply limits it capability to make learners a critical human being. Social science has also been seen to taught facts to the learners, where teachers simply inform about the facts available in the books.

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352 | Chapter 2 Issues and Challenges of Teaching–Learning Social Science Such way of teaching dismiss the possibility of promoting critical and analytical thinking skills in learners and they become only recipient than actually participating in learning process. There is a great need to provide space of questioning to the learner to become an aware and critical member of the society. This will eventually make a critical social scientist. However, such spaces are not given the learner and Social science is taught as passive subject and this has become severe problem for teaching of Social science.

Lack of Authentic Field Experience- and Inquiry-Based Projects Another challenge to Social science teaching is to decide about authentic filed experiences. Teachers face problems to define what and how to engage learners in field experience. Largely, teachers take them to the historical monuments, which alone does not mean or facilitate the Social science to become authentic and activity-based subject. Assignments are also very theoretical or teachers use the assignment given at the end of the chapter, which does not fulfil the requirement of a live subject such as Social science. Therefore, one has to understand the whole discourse of authentic field experience- and inquiry-based teaching–learning processes.

Teachers’ Understanding about the Objectives of Teaching of Social Science Most Social science teachers are not aware of the importance of teaching Social science, that is, why to teach and how to teach Social science, because they simply teach Social science to provide information to the learners. The idea of teaching Social science is to make better citizens who understand the need of the nation along with the responsibilities and rights. However, school teacher probably not aware of it, and if they are aware, they fail to understand how to make these objective application, and hence, learners can facilitate to become good human beings. Therefore, there will be teachers who know the objective of teaching Social science along with the ways, but systemic issues and barriers do not allow them to apply their understanding. Therefore, how to make qualified teachers and democratic system is a great challenge in teaching Social science. Such situation constitutes a gap in the effective and useful implementation of the content of social science.

Lack of Zeal in Teachers about Social Science It has been observed and studies also shows that a good teacher always update his/her knowledge to provide better cognitive apprenticeship. However, studies also show that teachers failed to update their knowledge and try to teach the same as they studied. This develops another kind of problem where student fails to know new and contemporary knowledge and concept. This will largely influence their way of perceiving world from one decade old. Therefore, learners also fail to deal effectively with the prevailed problems. Teachers show less zeal to deal with emerging

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knowledge in Social science across the world. This lack of zeal in teachers also influences learners’ perspective towards Social science.

Reforms in Education and Social Science Teachers Largely, teachers of all the subjects get very less chance to update new changes and reforms taking place in education and it happens because over a period of time the linkages between schools and universities are not strengthened. Social science teachers are not the exception in this regard. Their content and pedagogy get restricted to school Social science. New reforms in terms of knowledge and pedagogy happening in universities are not reaching to them and this becomes a cause of lack of new knowledge in teacher and in learner. The linkage between universities and schools is very important step, which need to be taken immediately.

Lack of Professional Development of Social Science Teachers Professional development is very essential for all the teachers. However, it has been observed that the professional development programmes are not of high quality and therefore not facilitating the professional enrichment of the teachers. The scope of participating in conferences, seminars, workshop, etc., is very low. Generally, teachers do get such chances and if few get it, school does not motivate to do so. This becomes cause of not professional difficulties for teachers. As we know, workshops are conducted for school teachers in summer vocations, but the results are not satisfactory. Teachers simply go there and spend time and when they back to school everything is same. There is scope of school-based professional development programme available in India, which is the need of the time.

Teaching Social Science Is Only Theory or It Develops Creative Skills Also Social science has been observed as a theoretical subject and not a subject that provides space for the development of creative life skills. Hence, the way it is taught, it limits its scope to be used in daily life and make it a theoretical subject, which hardly has any kind of association with actual life of learners. Learning few facts from the textbooks has become synonyms of teaching–learning Social science. However, it is a fact that social science has a great relevance in our social life. It facilitates to understand the social scenario in which they are living. However, unfortunately, developing such creative skills are not part of Social science teaching in actual practice, and therefore, it has become a challenge in front of Social science to how to prepare such Social science school teachers who can facilitate developmental and creative skills in learners. This also questions the relevance of teaching of Social science for life-sustaining vocation. It becomes unclear to the learners that why are they studying Social science if it does not lead them towards a good carrier for sustainable life.

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354 | Chapter 2 Issues and Challenges of Teaching–Learning Social Science

Space for Reflection on Social Science Content to become Good Citizens As we discussed earlier that what is to be included in Social science textbooks have always been a matter of debate and have not received any clear answer yet and the contexts available in textbooks are largely political governed, which hardly provide space to develop critical and effective citizens. Second, the way that it is taught also does not provide space to think and develop ones understanding about concepts; rather, it is simply given to learners, which does not provide any space to be actively and critical engage with the content given in the textbooks. This decreases the possibility of developing good citizens for the nation.

To Provide Space for Developing National Consciousness Teaching Social science faces problem in developing national consciousness, due to the content given in textbooks make teacher to confuse about the national and international concerns. The very idea of globalisation created this conflict or confusion, where teachers somehow fail to make correct sense of the given knowledge and get influence by the overt idea of globalisation. Experiences with school teacher show that largely teachers believe that globalisation is good for the nation. However, it is necessary to know how it is good and where it is not good and influencing nation’s growth and existence of future generation? Therefore, teachers have one-sided perspective about the content available in the textbooks and try to simply transmit it to the learners. Dealing with such issues where teachers themselves are not aware of the challenge in teaching Social science.

Social Reality versus Content Content of social and social reality is not dealt adequately with reference to teaching of Social science. The knowledge available in Social science textbooks has hardly any relation with lived social reality. This gap creates countless problems with reference to Social science about it utility, usefulness, significance, and so forth. The way social science actually construct knowledge and the way it is presented with reference to social life does not match and here lies the actual problem, which can only be dealt effectively if we will develop relationship between social reality and the Social science contact and the process of knowledge construction. The challenge of teaching Social science is to develop strong relation between these three dimensions.

Issus Related to Interdisciplinary Approach Social science is interdisciplinary in nature and therefore needs interdisciplinary approach in acquisition. However, how to understand this nature and make this subject interdisciplinary is a great challenge for teachers in school. By saying interdisciplinary will not help much in this regard, rather one has to understand and make use of this knowledge while teaching. For example,

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one has to link different subjects while teaching Social science like a story. It also leads to problems to teachers, as teaching methodology is found to be not good. Therefore, there is a great need to make sense of interdisciplinary approach that deals with practical or implication part.

Hegemony of Science and Science Method and Struggle for Existence Social science is struggling with a unique kind of challenges nowadays, where it has to prove itself as objective as science is, and it creates an unrequired and needless comparison between two subjects or discipline with different nature and epistemological basis. We all are aware of the fact that the nature of science is different from the nature of Social science, then why everyone is trying to establish equivalence between these two distinct disciplines. This struggle of compression forces social science to develop characteristics of science and it becomes cause of destroying the nature and beauty of social science, where social science has to prove itself as a science. Gradually, the scientific method has dominated the entire field of social since. This has also crated major problem in social science, where we try to deal with subject filed with very objective tool. This mismatch in the tools and the field of research creates problem in fundamental researches and innovation in the field of social science. The methods of social science researches have been rejected for investigation because of unwanted importance is given to scientific method.

Memorisation It has already been discussed earlier that Social science is considered as a subject, which is factual and has very less utility in real life as far as occupation is concerned. Therefore, it is considered as a subject that needs only rote memorisation. This very idea ruins the pedagogic needs of the subject and restricts it to the rote learning. It has become a challenge for Social science pedagogic discourse to understand and establish social science beyond memorisation. There is a need to establish the need of the utility of the subject, and therefore, pedagogic reforms are need.

Summarising Social science is a very important subject at school level and there is a great need to establish the everyday importance to this subject. However, it faces many challenges, not only as a discipline rather with reference to its pedagogic process also. Social science is considered boring subject by majority, which need to be question and for that lots of new researches will be needed to come out from this pessimistic understanding about social science. Not only students, rather, teachers also perceive Social science as a low-status subject, whereas science and mathematics are considered high-status subjects. Social science methods have not be given due respect in its own discipline, and it became one of the major challenges faced by social science. Interdisciplinarity is another challenge social science, which has to face as it is misunderstood by the people. Simple amalgamation of all associated subjects is considered social science, which distort the actual

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356 | Chapter 2 Issues and Challenges of Teaching–Learning Social Science essence of Social science and its teaching. This problem leads to another problem where one can see huge difference between social reality and social science content. This widens more when social science taught as a fact than ever evolving discipline, and therefore, learners fail to deal effectively with their own social issues and problem, because they hardly make sense of what is taught in school and what exists in real social life. In such a situation, learners also fail to develop skill of thinking, questioning, critical analysis, and decision making, and Social science becomes a subject of rote memorisation. To deal with all these issues, it is important that the nature of social science need to be understood in itself and not always with reference to science. Social science has to prove its strength with reference to itself and not in line with science, because both have distinct nature all together.

WHAT IS SIGNIFICANT ABOUT TEACHING OF SOCIAL SCIENCE Social science teaching is an interesting and complex process, where, countless issues and concerns work simultaneously. A Social science teacher has to keep many things in mind while teaching. Some of the points are discussed as follows: 1. Social science teaching–learning is more effective when it explains meaning completely to the learners. Meaningfulness develops a special kind of mind network, where learners become able to create linkages among various ideas, beliefs, and concepts. Meaningful teaching of Social science will also facilitate the development of in-depth knowledge and understanding about any concept. A good and effect Social science teacher will always teach less but meaningful. Teachers will always emphasis more on depth and breadth. 2. Social science teaching must promote subject-oriented literacy, which is inter-disciplinary and promote the critical-thinking processes to analyse the social values, context, and issues with the help of inquiry-based approach, so that, learner become able to deal with social concern, challenges, and issues effectively. 3. Teacher must provide spaces for reflection not only to the learner rather to their own practices also. This opportunity will facilitate learners and teachers to understand curriculum in a more effective and comprehensive manner, and therefore, they can do better planning of teaching and learning. Reflective practices will engage teachers and learners to make more elaborated scenes of the nature and epistemological bases of social science and this engagement will lead them to develop need based pedagogical practices in social science. 4. Social science teaching must provide a balance perspective and should allow learner to decide their own way of action with appropriate rational. This will make them more responsible for their actions and decisions. Such issues are largely related to caste, class, gender, religion, culture, etc. 5. Social science needs to be observed as an integrative subject where, this integration is not formed one the basis of History, Geography, Political science rather it incorporates the fields of anthropology, psychology, sociology and a like. The perspective developed on the basis of such eclectic approach provides a better lens to see and analyse social problems. This also

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provides a totality perspective to understand problems and issues with reference to its connection from past to present and predict for future. 6. A wider space to conduct inquiry-based research need to be provided to enhance the ability of analysing, synthesising, decision making, etc. 7. Social science has to be value based, which prepares responsible, aware and human citizens. Social science has to develop democratic attitude in learner so that they can trust and have faith in democratic values at large. The ideas of multiple perspectives, respecting the dignity of others, accepting others’ existence rather tolerating other and so on need to be promoted through Social science teaching. 8. Value development is not restricted to learners only; moreover, teachers also need to provide time and space to themselves to develop values about their own teaching processes. Teachers should develop consciousness about their own value system that surely influences their pedagogic practices and believes. 9. Social science teaching must develop the capabilities of argument and taking rational decisions about one’s own choice and the choices that make effect on others. Needless to say rational thinking will surely develop a better citizen for the nation and for the world. To develop these abilities, teacher has to provide spaces for debate, authentic experiences, in-depth discussion, and raising questions and so on. 10. Social science should not be considered as simple, boring, and easy subject. It is a challenging subject and provides challenging and wide range of researches in the concern field. Therefore, teachers must provide intellectual challenges to the learners, and therefore, they can become able to deal any conflicting situation effectively. 11. Social science teaching should be active. Where lived and authentic experiences are shared and provide base of the teaching–learning process of Social science. Let learners also decide what they want to study, let me bring material to the class, let them decide the way they want to study, because it is very important to actively engage and take part in all the actions actually to become authentic learner of any concept (Hands of experiences). 12. Pedagogy used by teachers, need to be clear and precise where, learner can make sense about the classroom practices. The classroom must be engaging, interactive, authentic, and full of examples and learner centred. Largely, Social science classes should be based on humanistic approach.

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ Social science is not the only amalgamation of various subjects such as History, Geography, Political science, etc. ➨ Teaching of Social science is not simply transformation of factual information to the learner. ➨ Objectives of teaching of Social science at secondary level such as, understanding structure of society and how does it reach to the present situation, appreciating the value enshrined in the Indian constitution, developing responsible member of society, respecting diversity and so on.

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358 | Chapter 2 Issues and Challenges of Teaching–Learning Social Science ➨ The nature of knowledge in social science is subjective, which creates many challenges but also provide strength to social science. ➨ Social science teachers are not well trained to teach Social science, as they do specialisation in any one are of social science field. ➨ Social science teaching can be biased from teachers’ perspective and ideology because there is lots of space for subjective interpretation. ➨ Social science has been viewed as negative, less useful and boring subject, which is incorrect. ➨ Largely, teacher and student have misconception about social science that it is a factual subject, and therefore, it is taught and learn by rote learning methods. ➨ Nature of social science has also been understood wrongly and people try to understand it with reference to science, which need to be question. ➨ Social science is taught as an over simplified subject, which weaken the strength of the subject. ➨ One can see the gap between social science content and societal problem. ➨ It is very important that how does teachers understand the objectives of teaching of Social science. ➨ Use of science method in social science has created many problems with reference to the solution of the problems in social science. ➨ Professional development of Social science teacher is another important challenge in front of Social science. ➨ Whose knowledge is accepted and how a very important fundamental issue in social science needs to be discussed at length. ➨ The understanding of teachers’ about the interdisciplinary approach and its practical skill to deal with social science is very important for dealing issues and concerns in the field of social science. ➨ Social science teaching can be more effective when it is meaningful. ➨ Social science must promote subject-oriented literacy, which is interdisciplinary. ➨ Social science teaching should be reflective, and for this, teacher and learner should also be reflective. ➨ Independent decision making, understanding others perspective and respecting diversity, authenticity, social values, etc., should be emphasised by teaching of Social science.

Check Your Progress 1. How would you describe the nature and epistemology of social science? Discuss with suitable arguments. 2. Why there is a need to Social science in school at secondary level? Explain with appropriate examples. 3. Discuss the objective of teaching of Social science at secondary level?

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4. What kinds of challenges a teachers faces while teaching Social science at secondary level? Discuss any four with illustrations. 5. How does Social science teaching can be highly influenced by teachers’ biases? Take few examples to substantiate your answer. 6. “Over use of science method in social science has ruined the very nature of social

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science.” Discuss the above statement with suitable examples. 7. Discuss with reference to classroom teaching that how a Social science teacher can

promote the skills of critical thinking, questioning and critical analysis? 8. Discuss with example, what a Social science teacher should keep in mind while teaching.

Objective Questions 1. Social science is misunderstood as (a) an amalgamation of subjects such as History, Geography, Political science, etc. (b) an important school subject at secondary level. (c) very useful subject to deal with social issues. (d) None of these 2. Teaching of Social science is largely associated with the following expect: a) Facts (b) Concepts (c) Perspective (d) Knowledge 3. As per NCF 2005, which one of the following is not an objective of teaching of Social science at secondary level? (a) To grow up as active, responsible, and reflective members of society (b) To learn to respect differences of opinion, lifestyle, and cultural practices (c) To question and examine received ideas, institutions, and practices (d) To promote fact based learning process about social life 4. An important challenge to Social science is (a) its subjective knowledge. (b) its factual knowledge. (c) its authentication. (d) its evaluation.

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5. The nature of social science to a large extent is subjective, therefore, its teaching (a) will may influence by teachers’ biases. (b) will must influence by teachers’ biases. (c) will not influence by teachers’ biases. (d) should influence by teachers’ biases. 6. ____________________ of a concept make learner dependent upon easy conceptual explanation. However, whenever and wherever, we have to deal with complicated concept we feel helpless or struggle a lot with it or some time give it up. (a) Complex teaching (b) Over simplified teaching (c) Contextual teaching (d) Collaborative teaching 7. After studying Social science, learner face problem in dealing with social problems because (a) gap between Social science content and social problems. (b) Social science content is authentic. (c) Social science content is factual. (d) None of these 8. Sometime teachers fail to engage learners in the class because (a) Social science content is tough. (b) teachers are not aware about the objectives of teaching of Social science.

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360 | Chapter 2 Issues and Challenges of Teaching–Learning Social Science (c) teachers are not aware about the facts of Social science. (d) teachers do not do hard work.

9. Social science teachers are facing problems in effective teaching of Social science and therefore, working on the same line as they learn at their own times. What would be the possible reason for this? (a) Teachers’ attitude is problematic and they resist change (b) Lack of professional development of Social science teachers

10. The best practice that will contribute in teaching-learning social would be: (a) Reflection (b) Discussion (c) Individual learning (d) Rote learning

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Classroom Processes, Activities and Discourse

CHAPTER

LEARNING ObjECTIvES • Understand the meaning of classroom discourse • Understand about various approaches to learning • Elaborate about the issues associated with various approaches that help to understand the classroom discourse • Become an effective teacher with abilities to organize various activities for learners

INTRODUCTION In last few chapters, we developed an in-depth knowledge about Social science such as its nature, epistemology, challenges, issues, and so on. At the beginning of this chapter, we have a comprehensive understanding and teaching of Social science. The main objective of the chapter is to engage the classroom processes with various activities. It has been already established that Social science is not a simple subject rather is a complex enough as it deals with subjectivity and Social issues and concerns. Initially, this chapter will discuss various perspectives and approaches to learning, but it is important to understand that these approaches are not only psychological rather these are based on classroom activity based. How to make a Social science class more interesting, effective, and so on? Discussions in the following sections will also facilitate to know about the handful and practical activities to engage learner in the class.

APPROACHES TO LEARNING There are various approaches to learning. It is important to know that approaches to learning, that is the ways of learning and how to organize active, collaborative, lively, problem-solving based, and experiential activities in classroom. Further section of the chapter will deal with these approaches in details. These approaches of learning are as follows: 1. Active learning approach 2. Collaborative learning approach 3. Inquiry-based learning approach

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362 | Chapter 3 Classroom Processes, Activities and Discourse 4. Problem-based learning approach 5. Peer learning approach 6. Community learning approach 7. Experience-based learning approach 8. Reflective learning approach

Active Learning Approach Active learning approach can be understood when learners are engaged in two-way process simultaneously and it means doing any work and thinking about the work he/she is doing. It means that active learning approach rejection is an idea of simply watching, listening, or noting down from the board. However, an important thing has to be kept in mind that active learning should not be for long duration of time, rather, it should be short duration of time such as a few minutes. Active leaning is a flexible approach for teaching, as it can be used with any other way of teaching; for example, it can be merged with lecture methods, group activities, collaborative task, and so on. There is also a need to understand why we need to incorporate or use active learning strategies for teaching. There is research-based evidences that simple lecture method makes class boring, where children fail to relate themselves with the classroom processes. The concept of teachers know all and learners know nothing dominant in lecture methods. Active learning simply means to make learners participate in the classroom processes actively and doing this will surely provide a special space to every children in class. It will motivate learners to reach to their best potentials. In active learning, because every child is participating and teacher is also actively engaged, therefore, learners will get immediate feedback to improve their further learning. Teachers will also be able to deal with diverse learning processes. It is also important to know that when learners are actively engage with the content given to them, they will be able to develop a rapport with the content and start feeling part of it, which enhance the possibility to motivate learners in their field of interest. Let learner also decides the way that they want to become active participant, whether in group or individual and any other way, which make them comfortable. This process will develop not only their confidence but also their self-esteem and identity. They will be able to see themselves as an individual and also as social human being who has responsibilities towards society. Teachers need to understand the need of the importance of pre-class task. Teacher should have ready activities, strategies, content, and other associated things to actually create an active learning environment.

What teachers have to keep in mind? It will be essential for teachers to become aware about the various activities that are related to active learning process. There are many such activities already available, such as ‘round table discussion, study circle, think pair share, etc., and those are already available and have to choose

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as per the need of the situation. There would be required to change these activities considerably so that learning needs of the learners can be addressed. Critical and crucial issues need to be considered important by teacher while planning any activity. The clear procedure and rules of the activity should be developed by the teachers. Moreover, include learners to contribute in all such activities and rule making.

Peer Teaching Learning Peer teaching is a very good and effective system or process of engaging learners in an active atmosphere, where every learner is participating in learning process and facilitating each other also. In this method, learner agency is actually celebrated. Here, they start work collectively and evaluate collectively. This process also developed a sense of belongingness. Discussion is another important aspect of peer learning. It is important to understand that peer learning has also evolved over a period of time; therefore, one can find various interpretations of peer learning. Traditionally, it is defined when senior student tutor the junior students, and now, we understand it in terms of everyone support everyone or we can say partnership. Here, there is no hierarchy and every leaner has potential to participate in learning process at their own pace. There are many other ways those explain the idea of peer learning, such as counselling, seminars, and study group, and so on. We can understand peer learning in two specific manners where first deals with reciprocal learning process and the second talks about sharing ideas, knowledge, experience, etc. In both the cases, we have common characteristics that emphasize on interdependency than being only independent. This positive dependency is common in both the cases. This will provide opportunities to explore and understand others’ ideas to develop one’s understanding about any issues and concerns. They also develop ability to conduct and organize activities to work and learn collaboratively. However, it is very important to understand that one has to use peer-learning process very carefully. If there will be some uncertainty or lack of clarity, learners will not be able to understand the process and whole idea of peer teaching will be defeated. Learner will be confused about what they have to do and how? What is the purpose and so on? This healthy process of learning, in the absence of learning will become useless and inappropriate for everyone. On the other hand, if the process of peer learning is organized effectively, it will surely and effectively contribute in learning of the learners. It will also provide opportunities to leaners to learn from each other. They will also be able to help how to learn than only what to learn. It is important to know whom we are calling peer. Peer will be the same age mates and who does not have to play a role of expert like teachers. In such a situation, they will feel themselves to be accepted in the group. There will be no power over each other and each one of them will enjoy sharing their experiences without right and wrong. This entire process will take place in a reciprocal way and organized in a class itself, where each learner will take responsibility of both teaching and learning. It will also be helpful to avoid and deal with the problem of comparison among learners.

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364 | Chapter 3 Classroom Processes, Activities and Discourse Peer-learning work as twofold objective where learners learn themselves and also help others to learn. These kinds of arrangement provide space for understanding mutual experiences, which facilitate their learning processes. Habermas’s idea can be quoted here, where he talked about the weakness of the system where one person is given duty to teach and other is given duty to learn. We also have to understand the peer learning beyond learning with each other. It also emphasizes the various kinds of support to the learner, in which emotional support can be one of them. Here, the role of learner can be understood beyond student because the role is not unidirectional and each one has space to contribute to the classroom discourse.

Collaborative Learning Approach Social constructivism is the base of collaborative learning. Social constructivism is in favour of social embeddedness of knowledge. It strongly believes that all knowledge has a social context. It believes that learners play an important and active role in learning and construct their knowledge through their active participation. Therefore, learner becomes important in this process, where, doing part plays major role over listening. It is also important to know that when we favour the idea of social construction of knowledge, we must have faith in group work and team work processes. The important focus is given on interaction. This interaction can take place with reference to peer or in larger group. The idea of peer learning represents the process in which two or more peers work together and try to understand any concept or try to solve any problem. Teachers have to provide the necessary material to complete the task and then leave the learner with that material to discuss and understand, but teacher has to observe and facilitate the entire process, such as dealing with misunderstandings, providing cognitive apprenticeship to learners, and so on. There are various researches which show that collaborative learning processes are best suited to the idea of active and social embeddedness of the learning process. Beyond this, there are various other important benefits of collaborative learning, which are as follows: 1. Promote higher order thinking skills, effective communication, self-reflection, and various life skills. 2. Meaningful and useful teacher–learner relationship. 3. Develop the learning ability of learner, self-esteem, and collaborative responsibilities. 4. Understanding the diverse perspective in learning situations. 5. Developing a collaborative humanitarian perspective about the various issues, concerns, and concepts. There are various kinds of collaborative work activities available such as think pair-share, wish bowl debate, catch-up, team-based learning, jigsaw, and so on. Other important things that need to be kept in mind, while collaborative work especially when it is based on group work, are as follows: the process of group formation and ensuring the learners are engaged in useful and productive task, technological support or assistance, abilities of learners in a group, and so on.

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It is important for group work that the problem needs to be broken down into relatively small segments, so that students can work on it to solve it to the best of their abilities. After the problem is solved by the various groups, the opportunity of peer review must be given to understand the each other perspectives. Therefore, it is important to provide enough time and space to learners to engage with the entire process. One has to be aware that assessment is an important part of the group work process. For this purpose, both process and product can be evaluated and teacher must provide a detailed explanatory report about the work done by the learners. Self-assessment, peer review, or a rubric developed by teachers can be used for evaluation.

Inquiry- and Discovery-based Learning Approach Inquiry-based learning is a deviation from the idea, which focuses only on classroom learning process. Therefore, it includes filed work or interactive activities, where a child can try to unfold the uncovered ideas and perspectives about any concern and concept. This process will provide them space to engage with the field actively and observed actual situation and facts in the field itself. This also promotes their meta-cognitive abilities, because they get chance to think and explore in the field. This is a good practice to help learners to use their classroom knowledge in the field. This also develops a sense of belongingness with the data and learned knowledge. It is also important to know that there is possibility that one will not get chance every time to work in the field. In such a situation, this approach can be used with reference to classroom activities, where, virtual environment will develop a space to solve to problem more effectively and learners will be able to deal with real world problems. There are many positive dimensions that one can identify about the inquiry-based learning processes. The core idea behind this process is not just engaging learner in learning situation but engaging them in the social process of exploring knowledge and taking it to the level of elaboration and critical reflection, which will surely provide spaces to unfold the unsaid and unrevealed reality of any social phenomenon. Lecture method restricts the natural process of learning, where inquiry- and discovery-based learning provide enrich direct experience to the learner. They gain comprehensive understanding about the concept, because they are the active participant in inquiry. Learners are engaged in filed and learn skills, which is not the case in traditional teaching method, where everything is given to them. The exploration provides them space to develop or create connections between various concepts they deal with. Here, it is also important to know the how one can actually organized such activities in actual classroom situations. There are many points that may useful to organized inquiry and discovery based learning. These are as follows: 1. Learning activities need to be developed according to the need and objectives of the learning. In the absence of learning objective that one like to achieve, no concrete step can be taken towards them. These objectives will also provide a direction to work and future action.

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366 | Chapter 3 Classroom Processes, Activities and Discourse 2. Understand and decide the requirements of your work. It may include many things such as time duration, means to be used, kind of work to be done, and independency of the work. 3. Time limit is needed to complete the work and it will be done successfully if we can set our target or expectation. 4. Gage the need of learners and decide the support you can provide to them. This support, for sure provide a positive strength in learners to be more confident and work oriented through problem solving. 5. Teacher needs to be sure about what is to be assess and what would be the tools of assessments. Such as, learning is to be assessed, or skill development or anything else. Learners also need to be aware about the assessment criteria so that they can work with focus to achieve the target.

Problem-based Learning Approach Problem-based learning (PBL) is an innovative approach of teaching. It can also be seen as an alternative to classical or traditional classroom learning. In problem-based learning, teacher does not lecture but provide problem or problem-based situation and ask learner to deal with it. Although teacher is available there for all kinds of support, the teacher does not provide solutions to the problems. Learners have to decide their own way of problem solving. This process will engage them in the mode of discovery and learners will take ownership of the problem solving and therefore, learning too. Teacher will work as a facilitator than problem solver. Problem-based learning will provide space to develop various kinds of strength and abilities in learners. It provides spaces for the following: 1. To come out with previous knowledge and understanding and try it out with reference to problem 2. Explore about what one need to learn 3. Develop skills to solve the problems 4. Develop ability to take one’s position with sound arguments 5. Become flexible in dealing with various kinds of situations There are various ways to work on the idea of problem-based learning. It depends on the kind of problem one is dealing with. One of such way may understood through these given steps: issues exploration, previous knowledge about the issue, stating the problem in one’s own language, exploring the possible/tentative solution of the problem, action to be taken to deal with the problem, what additional need to be known, documenting solution with appropriate support, rethink and revisit your solution and do not forget to encourage yourself. So, problem-based learning provides challenges to learners’ thinking to become active member of the problem-solving process. An ill structure situation starts the process of problem solving, where learner understand and explore the possible ways to deal with the problem. What is good about problem-based learning is that it is student centred and focus is more on learning than teaching.

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Problem-based learning engage learner with authentic context in real-world situation, and therefore, it becomes a way of living life. Various psychological studies proved that problem-based learning stays for longer in comparison to lecturing any concept and it happens because of the active engagement of learner, where he/she will be able to take first-hand experience while dealing with the problem. One of the most important positive feature of problem-based learning is that learner enjoy learning process because they play an active role in entire process.

Experiential Learning Approach When we try to reflect, analyse, and work upon a decided experience is known as experiential learning. In other work, it is learning based on one’s actual experience to achieve a planned aim with the help of planned objectives. The roots of experiential learning can be traced in Paulo Friere’s and Dewey’s work, where both of them argue the education has an important work to do for people and that is to make them empower and active thinker. This very idea stands opposite to the idea of ‘banking’ process of education and ‘tabula rasa.’ Both of these thinkers believed that the relationship between teacher and student must be reciprocal, where everybody is a learner and everybody is a teacher. They believe at larger-level education has to serve the society. Dewey also did not accept the idea that education has an objective to accumulate the information. His idea was to develop abilities to be active in learning process and take part in democracy. Dewey explained few steps of education process. These are encountering with problem, question to be answered, data collection, development of hypothesis, hypothesis testing, providing justified proclamations. These six steps provide a chance to develop abilities to become an active member of the society. Kolb’s model is also very known about experiential learning. Kolb talked about four steps/ stages about experiential learning. He developed a cyclic process in this regard. These four stages (Fig. 3.1) are as follows: 1. Concrete experience 2. Reflective observation 3. Developing abstract concepts 4. Active experimentation It is very important to know that every experience does not generate knowledge. To generate knowledge, it is significantly necessary that one has to be actively involved in the learning experience. Passive presence will not be able to help learners to generate knowledge. The active involvement must lead a person to reflect upon the gained experiences. Reflection based on analytical process will help learners to understand any concept in a comprehensive manner. Further, this comprehensiveness will provide insight into engage with new ideas. However, it is important to know that teacher has an important role to play in this entire process.

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Continuum

Concrete Experience Feeling

Processing

Continuum

Perception

Active Experimentation Doing

Refelctive Observation watching

Abstract Conceptualisation Thinking

Figure 3.1 Kolb’s model It is also relevant to know why experiential learning woks? It has clear relation with our brain process. The very idea of sensory cortex, back integrative cortex, front integrative cortex, and motor cortex can better explain it biological context. Kolb’s idea of experiential learning also represents these four parts and associates with collecting, analysing, developing, and acting. Experiential learning is not a new approach, but it is a traditional approach and a fundamental approach to human learning. However, how to incorporate this approach in present time need to be known as time has changed, and therefore, requirement has also changed.

Community Learning Approach Community learning or engagement may also be known as service learning and the larger aim of this pedagogic process is to deal with individual or collective good or one can say the objective of community learning is common good for larger community. It also means that the person needs to take part in the practices of community. This idea is directly associated with the idea of community participation under situated cognition approach of learning. It involves authentic participation that provides space for reflection to the students to develop their academic and cognitive skills for thoughtful and effective actions. It is important to understand that one cannot completely separate experiential and community learning; experiences are gained from community only. Community learning will benefit people from various perspectives such as personal, learning, social, professional, and so on. At personal level, it develops high-level self-confidence, self-efficacy, positive self-concept along with the development of interpersonal skill specifically perspective to work in a larger community.

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As far as learning is concerned, it surely impact learners’ academic growth positively because it provide space to develop abilities to understand the real-world situation. This will also help them to deal with the complexities and ambiguities of the analysis of the problems solving and cognitive processes. Development of social-level ability is unique to this approach as weaken the stereotypical thinking and promote cultural diversity that develops the acceptability of others with positive perspective. And all this will happened with respect to a larger social framework. Development in above-mentioned level will help for a better professional perspective and orientation, because they will learn to work in collaboration with others, where, working together to achieve some goal is required. And foremost one will work in favour of community then one’s own pity interests. They will also be able to develop leadership qualities. Better interpersonal communication will also be strengthening by this approach. Teachers will also be benefited by having good and quality student. Teachers will also get new opportunities to engage with new researches, which provide space to strengthen the teachers, competencies and teachers students’ inter-personal relationship. Teachers will become able to work towards social services and will contribute in social community. Teachers themselves or students can be involved in community-based learning with the help of various processes such as group projects, course-based community work, necessary inherent part of research, action research, and so on. Therefore, community-based teaching is good for learners, teachers, and community also.

Reflection Learning Approach Have you as a teacher ever tried to ask your student to reflect upon questions such as, how do you teach? How they understand and learn? Do they have some suggestion to share with you? How do they reflect about their own learning and so on? It is important to know that reflection will not provide immediate solutions rather provide an understanding about the problems and how to deal with it. One also has to understand that reflection is long process, where one has to be engaged continuously. Here, reflection has to be done from both sides, students and teachers. This collaborative process will surely help in effective teaching and learning process. Reflective learning will provide space to become more intellectual about their own intellectual. They will develop ability to think about their own ideas and thinking processes, which will eventually help them to become independent reflective learners. This reflective ability will also help them to use knowledge in their daily life to understand the issues and problem of their actual life. They will also become able to analyse situations from need-based perspective. However, to develop such abilities, it is necessary that one must have engaged in the process of reflective practices for a prolonged period of time. While engaging with this process, one also has to understand that there is no need to be judgemental rather; one should have faith in exploration, elaboration, and so on.

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370 | Chapter 3 Classroom Processes, Activities and Discourse A fundamental question can be asked here that how incorporate reflection in actual practice in classroom process. Some of the suggestions are given below: 1. Ask students how have their understanding changed after reading a particular chapter or topic. 2. Ask them to write something about the class every day. (may be few lines or a single line, but ensure consistency). 3. Ask them to think practical implication of what have they discussed in a class. 4. Ask them to think interdisciplinary, where they can develop relationship between various subjects they are studying. 5. Ask them to reflect about what they want to study in the course and why, try to incorporate it. 6. Ask them to write important ideas about the concepts discussed and share with the class. 7. Ask them before hand, how they would like to engage in the upcoming topic in class and then develop class with the collaboration of learners. These are some of the ways that will put learner on the path of reflection. There is also a need to understand that reflection is highly associated with meta-cognitive thinking processes, and therefore, there will be a great need to promote metacognitive thinking abilities in learners. Metacognition can be understood and thinking about thinking or thinking over thinking. It talks about the understanding of how one learns, awareness about one’s own learning, monitoring and assessing one’s own learning (it may also be called self-assessment or self-discipline) and alike. To promote meta-cognitive abilities, teachers have to deal with both procedural and conditional knowledge along with self-regulation.

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ There are various approaches to learning. It is important to know that approaches to learning it means the ways of learning and how to organize active, collaborative, lively, problem-solving based, experiential activities in classroom. ➨ Active learning approach can be understood when learner are engaged in two-way process simultaneously and it means doing any work and thinking about the work he/she is doing. ➨ Peer-learning work as twofold objective where learners learn themselves and also help others to learn. These kinds of arrangement provide space for understanding mutual experiences, which facilitate their learning processes. ➨ Collaborative learning is associated with social constructivism and favoured interaction in the group for working collaboratively. ➨ Inquiry-based learning is a deviation from the idea that focuses only on classroom learning process. Therefore, it includes filed work or interactive activities, where a child can try to unfold the uncovered ideas and perspectives about any concern and concept.

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➨ In problem-based learning, teacher does not lecture but provide problem or problem-based situation and ask learner to deal with it. However, teacher is available there for all kinds of support but does not provide solutions to the problems. ➨ When we try to reflect, analyse, and work upon a decided experience is known as experiential learning. In other work, learning is based on one’s actual experience to achieve a planned aim with the help of planned objectives. ➨ Community learning or engagement may also be known as service learning and the larger aim of this pedagogic process is to deal with individual or collective good or one can say the objective of community learning is common good for larger community. ➨ Reflective learning will provide space to become more intellectual about their own intellectual. They will develop ability to think about their own ideas and thinking processes, which will eventually help them to become independent reflective learners.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1. What do you understand about the term ‘classroom discourse’? Explain with suitable examples. 2. What are the various approaches to learning? How these can be used in class? Take any four approaches of your choice and answer with suitable examples. 3. Discuss the basic assumptions of inquirybased learning approach. How it can be used in class to provide better learning opportunities to learners? 4. What are the important things a teacher has to keep in mind while using ‘active learning approach’ in class?

5. Identify the similarities and difference between ‘peer teaching–learning’ and ‘collaborative learning.’ Answer with appropriate examples. 6. Discuss the classroom environment a teacher can provide to learner for learning according to the problem-based learning approach. 7. Describe the Kolb’s model of experiential learning. How this method can be used in an effective Social science class?

Objective Questions 1. Which one of the following is not a learning approach? (a) Active learning approach (b) Collaborative learning approach (c) Inquiry-based learning approach (d) Imagination-based learning approach

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2. Which one of the following teaching method makes class boring? (a) Story telling method (b) Discussion method (c) Lecture method (d) Project method

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372 | Chapter 3 Classroom Processes, Activities and Discourse 3. Active learning simply mean to make ___________ in the classroom processes. (a) learner’s participation (b) learners’ silence (c) learners’ discipline (d) learners’ noise 4. Peer teaching is a very good and effective system or process of engaging learner in ________. (a) active atmosphere (b) silent atmosphere (c) noisy atmosphere (d) open atmosphere 5. Social constructivism is the base of: (a) Behavioural learning (b) Community learning (c) Passive learning (d) Collaborative learning 6. Collaborative learning gives important focus on: (a) Reflection (b) Distraction (c) Interaction (d) intra-action 7. Collaborative work is based on: (a) Individual work (b) Group work (c) Situational work (d) None of these 8. Inquiry-based learning includes: (a) Group work (b) Interactive activities (c) Individual work (d) None of these 9. In learning approach, PBL represents: (a) Project-based learning (b) Program-based learning

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(c) Problem-based learning (d) Process-based learning 10. Problem-based learning will provide space to learner to develop (a) various kinds of strengths and capabilities. (b) various kinds of moralities. (c) various kinds of discipline. (d) various kinds of subjects. 11. Problem-based learning is effective be cause of (a) passive engagement of learner. (b) active engagement of learner. (c) progressive engagement of learner. (d) protective engagement of learners. 12. Kolb’s model is also known as: (a) Experiential learning (b) Effective learning (c) Empirical learning (d) Experimental learning 13. Community learning may also be known as: (a) Direct learning (b) Indirect learning (c) Service learning (d) Passive learning 14. Kolb’s model of experiential learning work in a cyclic process. Which one of the following is correct? (a) Concrete experience–Reflective observation–Developing abstract concepts– Active experimentation (b) Concrete experience–Reflective observation–Active experimentation–Developing abstract concepts

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(c) Concrete experience–Developing abstract concepts–Active experimenta tion–Reflective observation (d) Concrete experience–Active experimentation–Reflective observation– Developing abstract concepts

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15. Reflection is highly associated with (a) meta-cognitive thinking processes. (b) minimum cognitive thinking processes. (c) maximum cognitive thinking processes. (d) spatial cognitive thinking processes.

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CHAPTER

Developing Critical Thinking

LEARNING OBjECTIVES • • • • •

Understand why we need to be a critical thinker Explore the approaches and strategies to become reflective practitioner Elaborate upon the ways of developing critical thinking in learners Engage with the process of developing effective critical thinking Plan educational practices based on critical thinking

But if thought is to become the possession of many, not the privilege of the few, we must have done with fear. It is fear that holds men back – fear lest their cherished beliefs should prove delusions, fear lest the institutions by which they live should prove harmful, fear lest they themselves should prove less worthy of respect than they have supposed themselves to be. —Bertrand Russell(Principles of Social Reconstruction) You assist an evil system most effectively by obeying its orders and decrees. An evil system never deserves such allegiance. Allegiance to it means partaking of the evil. A good person will resist an evil system with his or her whole soul. —Mahatma Gandhi

INTRODUCTION Understanding about critical thinking processes and helping learners to become a critical thinker is a challenging task. It is a challenging task, but it is not a difficult process because it needs prolonged engagement with the problem. Therefore, developing critical thinking needs time, effort, and engagement. The statements given by Russell and Gandhi clearly describe critical thinking. It is about thinking regarding anything with analytical perspective, which also includes raising question to the existing structure or system or what so ever is prevailed and unfair. But largely, critical thinking is perceived as a process, which awakened the individual intellect. It is not a new concept, but it has a history of 2500-year old with its inter-disciplinary nature.

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Critical thinking is a disciplined intellectual skilful thought processing, which helps to analyse, synthesize, and evaluate the past and present situation and also make inferences about further action logically. It is a self-planned and self-disciplined way of thinking that uses high level of logical reasoning. All critical thinking must have rationality behind the arguments.

WHY WE NEED CRITICAL THINKING Human beings are distinct from animals not only by the characteristic of thinking but also by thinking critically and rationally. Critical thinking is not restricted to school alone, but it works globally. Hence, we should understand the meaning of critical thinking in-depth. When a child demands anything or acts for something or an adult works in an office to achieve something, critical thinking is needed. But it is important to know the kind of critical thinking that is required to be understood. It means critical thinking is associated with a kind of thinking that improves the quality of thinking while dealing with the problems. Humans need a critical thinking to lead a rational life. It helps to take decision about the problems and conflicting situation. As mentioned earlier, it is needed by all, that is, from childhood to old age, to improve their quality of life and thinking. It is also noted that critical thinking is not required once but it can be used forever. It is purely situation and context based. The ability of critical thinking is transferable, because it is based on ability and not on any fact. An interesting question here is whom we call a critical thinker? There are no fixed characteristics of a critical thinker and fixing these characteristics will also limit the meaning of critical thinking. Some concepts of critical thinking can be discussed. Persons who point out crucial questions and try to explore them with relevance to reach the solutions are known as reflective thinkers. In this process, thinking would be self-directed, self-monitored, and self-corrective. It is also important to understand that critical thinking is not about critiquing, rather, it is about looking positives, negatives, possibilities and so on simultaneously to take a comprehensive understanding about the issue or concern. It can be defined in a simple manner, that is, person with the ability to think critically is called critical thinking. It involves the following three aspects: openness and willingness to accept and analyse ideas, ability to work reasonably and logically, and knowledge and skills to apply logical methods on problems. With the help of these abilities and skills, a persistent effort is needed for critical thinking. Critical thinking must raise question from the existing solutions. Largely, the idea of critical thinking can be understood in the following manner: 1. It questions to the aims and the objectives 2. It engages with the kinds of question to be asked 3. It talks about legitimacy of the information and sources 4. It enquires about the kind of logic and reasoning is used 5. It deals with the concepts that make any concept usable

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DEVELOPING CRITICAL THINKING

Critical Thinking and the Social Studies Teacher Here, it is essential to discuss about the process of knowing and developing knowledge, which is not developed, because we have to remember a lot rather it happens; and as we raised questions, we should do reasoning and deal the concept with our critical thinking and develop discourse that we are engaged with. However, it is also assured that we heard a lot about critical thinking, but we do not have a very good or sound definition or explanation of critical thinking. Then, how to move ahead to develop certain things is not substantially clear? Therefore, it is necessary to develop a framework (not rigid but explainable) about critical thinking processes, to help learners to become effective disciplined thinkers, who have ability to negotiate the real-life complexities, and those are beyond the textbook and school life. A Social science teacher has to promote ‘social science thinking’ in learners, and therefore, a thought provoking person can be developed. As a critical thinker, we should understand that it is important to move from ‘judgment to justice’, where there is no way to judge people on the basis of their abilities, but it engages in the process of dealing as per their capability for improvement from justice point of view. The shifting from judgment to justice need reasoning, which may include the following: 1. Knowing and understanding about the purpose 2. Drafting or constructing questions 3. Collecting data or relevant information 4. Drawing inferences with reference to assumptions (if any) 5. Understanding the finding 6. Engaging with implication The above-mentioned points also indicated that in critical thinking one can assess one’s own thinking. Therefore, to become capable for critical thinking, a person has to work for clarity, precision, accuracy, relevance, depth, fair mindness, and so on. A Social science teacher has to include the following to provide spaces to learner to become a critical thinker: 1. Make it clear that learners are aware about the standards and aims to be achieved. Teacher must emphasize that there is no end point to objectives and standards, they are ever changing. Clear pointers of critical thinking are available to the learners. 2. Ask learners to think twice about the task that they performed. This will provide them scope to become reflective about their own practices and will engage learner in metacognitive abilities. They will be able to know about their own learning ways. Motivate them to ask question to themselves for their own practices such as was I correct? What else can be done? How can I change my way of understanding? And so on. 3. Learner must know that continues engagement will provide a better understanding about the concept. Critical thinking is not something which is already there in mind; rather, it has to be developed over period of time, while engaging with and problem and exploration of a concept.

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4. Speak less in the class. It will facilitate learners to think and discuss. During discussion, they will be able to know and understand each other’s perspective. This process will broaden their view about any concept, along with this; they will also learn to see their own view critically. 5. Your approach to teaching must be inquiry based, where learners will search answer of the posed question. During this process, they will engage themselves with the process of critical thinking. Inquiry-based teaching can be organized on individual bases or group basis. For the subject such as Social sciences, inquiry-based teaching and learning process is very significant. 6. Always provide space to write to the learners. Let them think and then pen down their thinking. Writing is a very good reflective practice, where learner can think about their own action. Actually, writing makes an idea in a concrete form. Writing will also develop their understanding about the discussed concept. Largely, we have to understand that, we have to develop a critical society of learners, who think critically and work critically. This society of learners will always keep improving as there is not end to critical thinking. However, it is hard to develop such learners’ community, as there is none so far. Whenever we try to understand thinking process, we can find various kinds of prejudice, biasness, lies, manipulations, hypocrisy, and so on across the world. Such characteristic in thinking lead us towards and fearful, sad, hopeless life, where, no space exists for criticality. On the other hand, it is also true that human species have capability to think rationally and logically. Critical thinking is also governed by our self-thinking process and how we are able to relate with the social issue and concerns. This process of thinking and self-thinking is not very obvious; one has to do deliberate effort to become a critical thinker. There are no fixed steps to become critical thinker and one can develop their own way. Initially, we all are unaware about the problem, where we even do not see problem as a problem. But soon one realized that everything is not very smooth and easy that he/she start thinking about the problem, such thinkers are called beginning thinker. Persons realize that the necessity of regular practice to understand and solve the problem to deeply elaborate upon the problem. After detail elaboration, person thinks all possible solutions of the problem, which him/her an advanced thinker. After looking for the possible solutions, one take action to solve the problem. Continuous engagement with such practice will make person skilful and insightful critical thinker. As has been discussed earlier, there is no one fixed way or strategies to become reflective and one can develop their own way to become critical. A few suggestive strategies are discussed later:

Do not waste time We waste lots of time when we are free. We do gossiping or simply watch TV without any purpose. It is time-consuming to begin or choose the action towards the solution of any problem. This simply hinders the process of critical thinking. What can be suggested here? When one can think freely about one’s own actions such as, when was my best day? When I failed to complete my objective and why? How can I improve myself, my strategies and so on to become a better

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378 | Chapter 4 Developing Critical Thinking and an efficient critical thinker? It is not necessary that all the time one will get the solution of the problem but it is sure that this process (asking question to one self) will develop a habit in a person to think critically in daily life.

Deal with one problem in a day It is a very good strategy to engage with critical thinking, where a person deals only one problem in day. This helps him or her to understand the problem in depth and reach to the possible solution. This will help to relate a person with the goal and objective of the problem. Dealing with many problems at a time will debar a person to understand either of the problems effectively. In the beginning, one need to take single problem for solution and define it clearly and precisely to the best of one’s capability. Then, one has to see possible solutions hypothetically on the basis of past experiences. Then, collection of related information is required, which will help in elaborating about the problem and reach to the solution critically. Now, one has to analyse the collected information and data to reach to the solution and take action towards it. Then, actions are evaluated and followed up. Follow-up always play an important role to become a better problem solver with criticality.

Self-talk to internalize the thinking Give enough time to reflect about the action taken by you. The kind of decision you have taken, the kinds of process you have adopted and so on. Talk to yourself about your past action, assess them and then plan for future actions. This process surely helps to become aware about one’s own actions and strategies. This internalization is also important to make it part of persons everyday life. It will make a person more precise, accurate, and critical. One has to do a deliberate effort to do self-talk about the action taken.

Maintain a written record No doubt, writing reflective journal and diary facilitates the process of becoming a critical thinker. It is an easy but engaging process. One has to engage with it for longer time. One may choose to write the way he/she would like to write. There is no fixed pattern to write and it should not be because reflection may take any direction to understand the problem and this makes if a beautiful process. One may begin to simply describe the situation he/she was engaged with, then think and write his/her response the described situation, then analyse the situation and your response to the situation collectively and finally assess your entire process. Hence, the journey from describing situation to assessment provides a wider vision to the person.

Systematize your personality and its characteristics Systematize your development as a critical thinker. Decide one characteristic at a time and work upon that such as honesty, confidence, autonomy, etc. This systematization will help to be précised

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and focused. When you see that you are master of one skill, move, or shift to another one. This gradually will make you a person of intellect. This entire process is not simple rather complex and difficult because it required long-term engagement to give direction to one’s personality.

Do not be self-centric or egocentric It is important for a person not to be egocentric and try to understand others’ perspective, which will eventually make him a critical thinker. Centric to one’s idea will neither leads towards solution nor towards critical thinking. Some time we do not realize that we are centric to our idea. In such a situation, we need to ask a few questions to ourselves such as, when I was not critical? When I refused other’s idea just because I wanted to prove my idea? When I criticized a person without any reason? When I was irrational? When I tried to impose myself on other? In contrast to egocentric, a person needs to be de-centric, where he/she will provide enough space to listen and understand others’ perspective. For a good critical reflector, it is necessary to be open minded, rational, and logical. Otherwise, centric to oneself will not provide enough space and opportunity to become a critical practitioner.

Change your way of perception Our world is ever changing and we also change as per the need of the time. Therefore, we also have to change our perception that helps us to understand the world around us and make sense of it. We feel that our perception towards world or its problem is absolute but it is a misconception. Even if the problems are getting solved, still we need to change our vision and perception to see the variation in process or solution to the problem. It will also break the monotony in the thinking process and take us to the different level of thinking processes. The changed perception will also change our strategies to deal with the problem and we can find of more solution to a problem. This also widens our vision towards issues, challenges, and concerns of our life. Along with these strategies many more can be thought and developed such as controlling emotions, understanding one’s position in a group and so on. The larger idea is to get engage with the situation for longer time to become a good critical thinker. What we understood by critical thinking by now is that critical thinking can be known the abilities that one has developed over a period of time to perceive, collect information, analyse that information and develop one’s view. It can also be said that critical thinking is process of reflective thinking that help to take decision about anything. We also come to know that critical thinking helps to 1. become able to ask question and review available information 2. solve the difficulties and problems 3. think and find long term solutions of the problems than immediate solution 4. understand any concept in a broad sense with all possible dimension or perspective 5. establish relation with theory and practice and 6. Reflect upon one’s own work and thinking processes

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380 | Chapter 4 Developing Critical Thinking Critical thinking also helps in forming one’s opinion by evaluating available options and asking verity of questions. There are various level of critical learning that can be understood as knowledge – it relates with remembering and understanding, comprehension – it relates with elaboration of the knowledge or information, application – implementation of knowledge in different situations, analysing – breaking down a big information in meaningful small categories, synthesis – understanding or perceiving knowledge in a new dimension different from earlier and finally evaluation – taking decision about the knowledge either in part or whole or both. (Boolm, B. 1956) Previously discussed process is somehow used by all critical thinkers whether our way of doing it would be different. But another question that seems to be very important is why critical thinking is necessary or important? In the following section, we will discuss about it.

IMPORTANCE OF CRITICAL THINKING There is no doubt that critical thinking is important in our life. It provides a wider perspective about any concept. It helps us to resolve problem in a more logical way by understanding best possible alternatives available. One also needs to understand that critical thinking is not only important in academic life rather in everyday life also. Specifically, in Social science, it helps to understand the subject better, helps in dealing effectively with controversial subjects and topic, and also helps to take crucial decision effectively. Social science students have to deal with social issues, which have more than one dimension, in such a situation critical thinking facilitates to take decision. Imagine a classroom where everyone is busy individually or in group to solve the various problems while engaging available facilities, evidences, data, books, etc. They are thinking and discussing about the problems faced by therm. In such an environment, critical thinking need to be foster and facilitated by teachers. A teacher can help learner to be critical from various approaches such as inquiry, questioning, problem solving, and collaborative or group work. Inquiry is a very effective strategy to promote critical thinking in learners. In inquiry, learner explores and inquires about any concept and issues or problem. In inquiry, a depth analysis is required which is based on investigation and search. Here, learners are able to establish new relations in already existed knowledge. It will facilitate this process of critical thinking in learners. It is important to understand that in the process of inquiry learner is engaged continuously with the prime question of inquiry. Inquirer comes to know various kinds of information available in the field to unfold secretes of the investigated field. Continuous engagement with inquiry will develop an attitude in leaner to perceive all the problem and challenges from the perspective inquiry that gradually fosters the ability of critical thinking. Guided questioning is an excellent way for promoting critical thinking. Such questions develop curiosity in learner to search solution independently. This process does not end with question asked by teachers; rather, it take it further to learner’s question and search for their answer by themselves. Planned questioning promote critical thinking, where learner themselves become able not only to answer the question, rather developing and constructing questions also.

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Teacher need to provide spaces and opportunities for problem solving that helps to learner in developing critical thinking. The most important feature of problem solving is not to tell answer to the learner; rather, it engages them in solving problem themselves. Such engagement provides opportunities to actively search for the solutions by the learners themselves. It is important to keep in mind that problem solving can also be used as per the ability and nature of child. It means that it may be used with individual or in group. When learner searches for the solution, they will gradually become critical thinker. Critical thinking best develop when learner has opportunities to exchange ideas with others in a collaborative learning environment. This exchange provides them space to understand other’s perspective and reflect upon his/her own perspective. This process also helps them to learn collegiality, which enhances one’s understanding about any issue and concept. For collaborative teaching, teacher may forms various group based on particular ability, mixed abilities, need, and concept. Such grouping should not be permanent rather these must be changed time to time for better exploration by learners. It will be a good step at this point of time to discuss the process of effective problem solving with good critical thinking.

HOW TO DO EFFECTIVE THINKING—A DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESS Step 1: Locate the problem, collect relevant information and doubts (Easy and lower level of complexity in thinking) A. Recognize the problem and accept the causes for continuing doubts on absolute answer of the problem B. Recognize the needful data and information and doubts reside in the information Accept and elaborate precincts of solutions. Step 2: Look at the interpretation and relations and association (Medium level of complexity in thinking) C. Information interpretation: (1) Recognize and control for own biases. Keep away from one’s biased perspective, idea and concepts (2) Explain hypothesis and logic related with various perspectives (3) Interpreting data or information from multiple perspectives D. Orderly organization of information to deal with problem effectively Step 3: Provide important to the alternatives and provide conclusion (High level of complexity in thinking) E. After deep analysis, construct or develop framework, or guidelines to select better solution out the available options F. Communicate or converse appropriately Step 4: Incorporation, observe, and develop effective strategies to deal with the problem. (Highest level of complexity in thinking) H. Incorporate different skills to develop new information and using it to observe and monitor and do needful changes G. Accept and elaborate precincts of solutions.

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382 | Chapter 4 Developing Critical Thinking

PLANNING EDUCATIONAL PRACTICES We know that every learner has unique abilities, need, and characteristic. Teacher’s role is to facilitate the learners thinking process, and hence, their difficulty in learning can be minimized. Once teacher become aware about learners’ capabilities, he/she can organize various kinds of activities, such as workshop, field visit, seminar, symposia, etc., to promote critical thinking among learners. If teacher understand the learners ability and skill, problem will provide them task those are within their reach and work will not be too complex with reference to their abilities. It also does not mean that if student will not be able to complete the work teacher will reduce the complexity of the task; rather teacher has to understand the skill development pattern of the child to facilitate the critical thinking process. It is evident that why students are not able to deal effectively with complex critical thinking skill? It is because of their educational experience and their engagement with unplanned and less skill full educational practices. Such experiences do not provide appropriate support to the learner to become critical thinker. Educationist such as Dewey believes that present critical thinking depends on the past experiences. Critical thinking develops in a spiral process where one step leads to another and every new experience add on to the already existed experiences. Appropriate challenges need to be provided to the learner to develop skills to deal with controversial issues. There is possibility that learner will not be to engaged with complex problem, and then, teacher should break down the problem up to the level of learner’s ability, and hence, learner can engage in the process of solving the problem. Gradually, learner has to move towards self- scaffolding, where they themselves search the kind of support they need. Here, we can talk about three basic ways a teacher should know to facilitate learners. They are as follows: 1. A progressive problem-solving process 2. A comprehensive rubric for evaluation 3. Dynamic and increasing complex thinking skill A teacher may use these tools or ways in variety of ways. Few are given below:

Collecting Fundamental Information Initially try to know the present abilities and skills of learners. Allow learners to construct questions themselves and solve them. On the basis of their present situation, plan future actions for the learners. Whatsoever, information you think are needed and crucial to know about learners’ ability collect to develop your understanding about how children learn and engage themselves to deal with any problem solving or critical thinking.

Systematic and Gradual Change in the Curriculum as per Need of the Learners Do not impose on learner and let them absorb the changes. Sudden change in pedagogy and curriculum will not help the learner. Therefore, a gradual change should be favoured by teacher.

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Teacher also needs to keep in mind the need of the learner. This gradual shift will allow learners to deal with increasing complexity of the engaged work. Gradually, students will be able to deal with more complex engagements.

Locate the Problem Areas of Learners Before planning and proving any task to the learners, it is important to know the weaknesses of the child. Teacher must know the problem area of critical thinking a learner may have. Teacher make list of the skill a child has masters or need to be mastered.

Initiate Discussion with Learners about the Effective Thinking Skills Once, teacher become aware about the weakness and strengths of the learners, s/he will be able to provide a better space and opportunities to the leaner to develop critical thinking. Teacher at this point of time can share with learners various ways of developing critical thinking, such as reflective writing, discussing with peer, self-reflection, and so on. Teacher role become crucial here, as s/he has to scaffolds them in developing their critical thinking.

Shift from Old to New Way of Thinking Processes It is important to understand that a learner has to move from old way of thinking to new way of thinking. It is possible the old way is facilitating the process, but, shifting to a new way will surely give a new perspective about the problem. Let learners set realistic goal to achieve, let them work from simple to complex, let them have sufficient time to deal with the problems, keep motivating them in various ways. Shifting old to new way itself have enough strength to put the learner on the path or critical thinking.

Self-monitoring Process To develop self-depended on critical thinking, it is important the learner must know and engage with self-monitoring process. This will help learners to evaluate themselves and their tasks. They will also become capable to evaluate the decisions taken by them. Self-monitoring can also be understood in form of keeping a check on one’s thinking, actions, and follow-ups.

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ Critical thinking is a disciplined intellectual skilful thought processing, which helps to analyse, synthesize, and evaluate the past and present situation and also make inferences about further action logically. ➨ Critical thinking works everywhere in our life and it is not restricted to school only. ➨ We need critical thinking to live our life with rationally. It helps to take decision about the problems and conflicting situation that we face.

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384 | Chapter 4 Developing Critical Thinking ➨ As a critical thinker, we have to understand that to move from ‘judgment to justice’, where there is not scope exist to judge people on the basis of their abilities, rather, it engage in the process of dealing as per their capability for improvement from justice point of view. ➨ Learner must know that continuous engagement will provide a better understanding about the concept. Critical thinking is not something which is already there in mind; rather, it has to be developed over period of time, while engaging with and problem and exploration of a concept. ➨ Always provide space to write to the learners. Let them think and then pen down their thinking. Writing is a very good reflective practice, where, learner can think about their own action. Actual writing makes idea in concrete form. Writing will also develop their understanding about the discussed concept ➨ Critical thinking is also governed by our self-thinking process and how we are able to relate with the social issue and concerns. ➨ There is no one fixed way or strategies to become reflective and one can develop their own way to become critical. ➨ Levels of critical thinking are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysing, synthesis, evaluation. ➨ Three basic ways a teacher can use to facilitate learners in critical thinking are – A progressive problem-solving process – a comprehensive rubric for evaluation – dynamic and increasing complex thinking skill.

Check Your Progress 1. What is your understanding of critical thinking? Take examples from social science and illustrate. 2. Whom you as a teacher can promote critical thinking in learners? Answer with suitable examples. 3. Why do learners and teacher need to be critical practitioners? Elaborate with examples. 4. What is the important and significance of critical thinking in Social science teaching?

5. Discuss about the following: (a) A progressive problem-solving process (b) A comprehensive rubric for evaluation (c) Dynamic and increasing complex thinking skills 6. ‘Developing critical thinking is a collaborative process between learners and teachers.’ Discuss about the statement with examples.

Objective Questions 1. Developing critical thinking needs (a) environment, good memory and coaching. (b) heredity, giftedness and environment.

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Mahatma Gandhi Tagore Kant Bertrand Russell

3. Critical thinking is perceived as a: (a) Task (b) Gifted act (c) Achievement (d) Process 4. Critical thinking is a disciplined (a) intellectual skilful work processing. (b) intellectual skilful information processing. (c) intellectual skilful thought processing. (d) intellectual skilful knowledge processing 5. All critical thinking must have ____________ behind the argument. (a) emotion (b) ideology (c) argument (d) rationality 6. Critical thinking is associated with a kind of thinking which improves the quality of thinking for (a) better dealing with the problem. (b) better dealing with the emotions. (c) better dealing with the stress. (d) None of these 7. Which one of the following statement is not correct about critical thinking? (a) Earned one and can be used forever (b) It is purely situation and context based (c) Critical thinking is transferable (d) It is ability and not an objective fact 8. A person points out crucial questions and try to explore them with relevance to reach to the solution can be known as: (a) Emotional thinker (b) Rational thinker

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(c) Reflective thinker (d) Logical thinker 9. Critical thinking must raise ______________ from the existing situation. (a) question (b) excitement (c) argument (d) acceptance 10. Which one of the following is false statement about critical thinking? (a) It engages with the kinds of questions to be asked (b) It talks about legitimacy of the information and sources (c) It enquires about the kind of logic and reasoning which is used (d) It deals with the concept which is not answerable 11. There is a great need to develop a framework (not rigid but explainable) about (a) human thinking process. (b) rational thinking process. (c) intellectual thinking process. (d) critical thinking process. 12. Which one of the following is not necessary for reasoning to move from judgement to justice? (i) Knowing and understanding about the purpose (ii) Drafting or constructing question (iii) Collecting data or relevant information (iv) Ignoring the findings (a) (i) and (ii) (b) (iii) and (iv) (c) (ii), (iii) and (iv) (d) Only (iv) 13. To become capable for critical thinking, a person has to work for

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clarity, fairness, and logical. precision, fairness, and irrelevant. ignorance, irrelevance, and unfairness. clarity, precision, accuracy, and depth and fair mindness.

14. Critical thinking a process which develops: (a) Deliberatively (b) Naturally

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(c) Automatically (d) None of these 15. There is/are _____________ of becoming reflective. (a) one way (b) no one way (c) many ways (d) None of these

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CHAPTER

Sources: Primary and Secondary

LEARNING ObjECTIVES • Understand the meaning and use of various sources in teaching–learning process • Familiarise with the idea and concept of primary and secondary sources with their meanings and examples • Elaborate on how do primary and secondary sources develop critical and analytical skills and abilities in learners

INTRODUCTION A source is a mean through which one will be able to know about any concept, fact, or information. Source facilitates the conceptual clarity about any idea or information. It also legitimates the authenticity of the given idea. Historian makes sense of the prevailed idea based on the various available sources. Researchers also explore and elaborate about the research area based on various kinds of resources. Similarly, resources are also very significant for a teacher to facilitate the learners’ ability to learn with authenticity. How knowledge will be accepted by the large community of society or the person of concerned field will depend on the available sources; these sources will prove that knowledge. Overall, one can say the authentication or validity is important for knowledge and it comes from the resources that are used to prove a particular knowledge. In the subject like Social sciences, the use of sources becomes more important as it culminates proves from the resources available. There are various kinds of sources available, which facilitate the teaching of Social sciences; however, these sources can largely be classified in two categories: primary sources and secondary sources.

PRIMARY SOURCES It is an important source that facilitates learning and research. It provides first-hand substantial proof or evidences about any persons, facts, events, and ideas. Primary sources can also be known as records in original form related to history, economic, politics, sciences, and so on.

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388 | Chapter 5 Sources: Primary and Secondary Such sources are prepared largely by the people involved in the task and procured it in the form of written, audio, video, or any other forms. Therefore, it can be said that primary sources are the sources in the form of physical objects and documents that were created during a specific time. These evidences are available during that particular time when these primary sources were prepared or written or available. This is the reason why they provide authentic information about the particular time on any significant event. It is important to know here that these sources will always be original and authentic, and therefore, it will always be same because they have already taken place. It is not necessary to continuously write primary source on the spot; however, they can also be prepared or written as proceeding of the event in the form of memoirs or oral history. It is important to keep in mind that primary sources can be of only one perspective and there may be other perspectives that may or may not get a chance to be written. Particularly, in history, the question ‘Whose history?’ is a very fundamental question, which raised not only various questions but also variety of questions on the prevailed concept of history. However, it is also true that primary source provides strength to the researchers’ work as it makes possible to understand what happened during a specific period of time.

Examples of Primary Sources Primary sources are crucial for any research to provide authenticity. There are many examples, and moreover, categories about primary sources such as printed publications, personal records, visual materials, visual materials, oral histories, and so on. Along with these sources, sources such as diaries, poetries, personal interviews, government documents, autobiographies, photographs, artefacts, historical speeches, deeds, census records, and arts are also included.

Why We Need to Use Primary Source It is a fundamental question to be asked that what is the need for using primary sources when we have number of secondary sources, which are easily available? Further, simple answer to this question is that primary sources not only make the learning authentic but also make a learner to think critically and analytically, which promote thinking skills, asking questions, and searching for the answers of their questions. Primary sources take a learner to the journey beyond what and when to why and how. Primary sources are doors to the past events without any kind of intervention and manipulations with originality and authenticity about the people, events, documents, stories, autobiographies, and so on. When learners are engaged with primary sources, they provide them chances to develop a sense of understanding history and method of history, which gradually promote higher order thinking skill (HOTS), critical thinking, and reflective abilities.

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Teacher can help learners to use and understand the primary sources in many ways: 1. Teacher may decide about few sources that are associated with the objectives to be achieved. 2. Teacher can provide them enough time and opportunity to engage with the primary sources with respect to the objectives. 3. Let them compare the sources and provide the tool to analyse the primary source with respect to the objectives that need to be accomplished. There may be many such ways to use the primary sources in classroom in order to make learning more interesting and authentic.

SECONDARY SOURCES Secondary sources can be understood in the form of interpretations, discussions, analyses, syntheses, and critiques of primary sources. These are not primary sources; rather, these are secondhand description or account of any event. These are one or more steps distant from primary sources. In other words, we can say that secondary sources are summarisation of primary sources with analysis and interpretation. These are not primary but are very useful and reliable. It cannot talk about the lived experiences but it helps to understand what people must have felt that time. Secondary sources include or represent many perspectives on one primary source, which strengthens the researcher’s idea and knowledge and provides multiple ways of analysing single information. It is also important to understand that every primary source cannot be presented everywhere; in such a situation, secondary sources become a good tool for knowing. It provides experts’ opinion about any event to evaluate it. It also saves time of a researcher or knower to know many views in little time. We can understand it easily by these given lines: I told you. ‘I’ become am a primary source. If you will tell it to anybody, you will become a secondary source.

Examples of Secondary Sources Similar to primary sources, secondary sources are also important source of information. There are many examples of secondary sources such as biographies, books, reviews of books, articles, newspaper articles, dictionaries, encyclopaedias, textbooks, charts, and graphs.

Why Use Secondary Sources All kinds of sources are important in teaching Social sciences, whether they are primary or secondary. Both the sources are important at their own place. Secondary sources are also important in terms of interpretation, discussion, analysis, synthesis, critique, and so on. The following are some of the reasons of using secondary sources: 1. It helps to understand the various perspectives about various events and concepts or historical position.

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390 | Chapter 5 Sources: Primary and Secondary 2. It provides space to understand the multiple perspectives about a single event. 3. It helps to develop one’s own perspective. 4. It takes little time to become familiar about any event or concept. 5. It helps to analyse one event from one perspective to different perspectives. There may be more reasons to be used and these resources make teaching–learning process more useful, effective, and critical; however, there are few things that need to be asked about any sources whether they are primary or secondary, such as written by whom? It is about what? When is it written? Where it is written?, and What is the reason for its writing?

HOW THE USE OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES FACILITATES LEARNING FOR LEARNERS There may be many ways of using sources in classroom teaching. However, certain points need to be kept in mind, such as engagement, critical thinking, developing a specific temperament, knowledge construction, and HOTS. Under these broad categories, one may choose their own way of doing it. The following gives a brief explanation of these points: 1. Engagement of learners with source 2. Developing critical- and inquiry-based temperament 3. Development and construction of knowledge 4. Evaluate the ability of using HOTS on various sources

Engagement of Learners with Sources It is necessary to start with the learners’ previous experiences and to engage them with the sources that are to be used in the class. This can be done by asking learner to observe the sources and deal with the question like ‘Who made these sources?’. If it is a primary source, then question like ‘When and where it is created?’ needs to be asked. In this entire process, learners seek all the important and necessary details. It is necessary to ask them ‘What were you expecting to find in the source and what actually you found?’ and ‘What kinds of ideas, concepts, and facts have been given there?’. Both primary and secondary sources motivate learners to relate available sources with other sources. Finally, engagement must lead towards certain important and fundamental question about the sources and their relation with the objective to be achieved. This engagement will facilitate and trigger learners’ thinking about various unsaid ideas and questions.

Developing Critical- and Inquiry-based Temperament Developing critical- and inquiry-based temperament and attitude is essential in a Social science learner. By using primary and secondary sources appropriately, a teacher can facilitate learner to engage with critical thinking that is based on inquiry approach. These abilities help learners to not only deal effectively with the sources but also critically evaluate them. However, ‘Will it

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happen?’ is an important question. This can be done with very simple process where teacher may ask learners to infer regarding the provided source such as ‘Who created it, why it is created, and for whom it is created?’. Inferences such as ‘What must have happened in a given time period?’, ‘What may be the reason for creating these sources whether primary or secondary?’ and ‘Is there any biased stereotypes or one-sided perspective that emphasised?’. It also has to be kept in mind that any one source cannot provide complete information, and therefore, there is need to know and analyse more than one source at a time to have a better and effective understanding. In this process, they have to see the relationship among the sources to be used and what they already know. Let learner evaluate his/her idea about any past event and he/she must search some other sources, whether primary or secondary, which are in contrast or opposite from the available sources.

Development and Construction of Knowledge The whole paradigm has been shifted from the idea of teacher teaches, the learner learns. In such a situation, it is important to provide enough opportunities to learners to engage in the process of knowledge construction. For this inquiry and questioning, the existing knowledge would be an effective process, where learners will be able to understand, compare, comprehend, and conceptualise any idea, event, or fact with multilayer analysis. This entire process will put them on the path of knowledge construction, which is based on logical conclusions, evidences, and various sources. This will also facilitate them to develop their deep understanding about the concept.

Evaluate the Ability of Using HOTS on Various Sources At this point of time, ask learners to summarise what they have done so far. This summarisation can be in the form of synthesis or analysis with appropriate reason. Further, let them talk and share how they have reached at the present point. This summarisation is not an end, rather it must raise questions for further investigation with same or different sources.

Summing up Teaching–learning process can be strengthened by using various kinds of sources that can largely be divided into two categories: primary and secondary sources. There are various categories under both kinds of sources. Primary source provides first-hand substantial proof or evidences about any persons, facts, events, and ideas. Primary sources can also be known as records in original form related to history, economic, politics, sciences, and so on. Primary sources may include printed publications, personal records, visual materials, visual materials, oral histories, and so on. Along with these sources, sources such as diaries, poetry, personal interviews, government documents, autobiographies, photographs, artefacts, historical speeches, deeds, census records, and arts are also included. Secondary sources can be understood in the form of interpretations, discussions, analyses, syntheses, and critiques of primary sources. Biographies, books, reviews of book and articles,

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392 | Chapter 5 Sources: Primary and Secondary newspaper articles, dictionaries, encyclopaedias, textbooks, charts, and graphs are the examples of few secondary sources. Both the resources have their own importance. The combination of both can provide better opportunities to learners to engage, learn, and construct, which will also promote critical and analytical abilities in learners.

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ A source is a mean through which one will be able to know about any concept, fact, or information. ➨ There are various kinds of sources available, which facilitate the teaching of Social sciences; however, these can largely be classified in two categories: primary sources and secondary sources. ➨ Primary source provides first-hand substantial proof or evidences about any person, fact, event, and idea. ➨ Primary sources can also be known as records in original form related to history, economic, politics, sciences, and so on. Such sources are prepared largely by the people involved in the task and procured it in the form of written, audio, video, or any other form. ➨ Examples of primary sources: printed publications, personal records, visual materials, visual materials, oral histories, and so on. Along with these sources, sources such as diaries, poetry, personal interviews, government documents, autobiographies, photographs, artefacts, historical speeches, deeds, census records, and arts are also included. ➨ Secondary sources can be understood in the form of interpretations, discussions, analyses, syntheses, and critiques of primary sources. These are not primary sources; rather, these are second-hand description or account of any event. ➨ Examples of secondary sources: biographies, books, reviews of books, articles, newspaper articles, dictionaries, encyclopaedias, textbooks, charts, graphs, and so on. ➨ The primary and secondary sources facilitate learning for learners by ■ Engaging the learners with sources ■ Developing critical- and inquiry-based temperament ■ Development and construction of knowledge ■ Evaluate the ability of using HOTS on various sources

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1. Explain about the sources used in teaching Social science subject with suitable examples.

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2. Why use of primary source is more significant in Social science subject? Discuss with suitable examples.

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3. What are primary sources? Explain with suitable examples. 4. You are a Social science teacher of Class VII. You have to teach about the rights to the class. Which primary and secondary sources will be used and why? 5. What is the need of using secondary sources in a Social science class when many primary sources are available?

6. How you as a Social science teacher can help learners to use and understand the primary sources for exploring any concept in Social science subject? 7. How using primary and secondary sources will engage learners in critical and analytical thinking processes?

Objective Questions 1. What is a primary source? (a) It is an information in encyclopaedia (b) It is often used source (c) The source that was created by the people participated in an event (d) The source that was developed after the event 2. Source facilitates the _________about any idea or information. (a) perspective clarity (b) subjective clarity (c) objective clarity (d) conceptual clarity 3. UDHR, expert views, and chapter from the book Das Capital by Marx are known as: (a) Primary sources (b) Oral tradition (c) Secondary sources (d) None of these 4. Sources are classified as: (a) Original and duplicate sources (b) Rights and wrong sources (c) True and false sources (d) Primary and secondary sources 5. _________ provide first-hand substantial proof or evidences about any person, fact, event, or idea.

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Bias source Neutral source Secondary source Primary source

6. A primary source cannot be: (a) Written (b) Audio (c) Video (d) Imaginary 7. Primary sources will always be: (a) Imaginary and artistic (b) Autonomous (c) Original and authentic (d) None of these 8. Which one of the following is not a primary source? (a) Biography (b) Autobiography (c) Oral sources (d) Archaeological monument 9. Secondary sources can be understood in the form of interpretations, analyses, syntheses, critiques, and so on of: (a) Government sources (b) Private sources (c) Primary sources (d) Personal sources

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394 | Chapter 5 Sources: Primary and Secondary 10. Secondary sources are not primary but are very: (a) Different (b) Useful and reliable (c) Subjective (d) Authentic 11. Secondary sources provide (a) expert’s opinion about any event to evaluate it. (b) personal expert’s opinion about any event to evaluate it. (c) general opinion about any event to evaluate it. (d) subjective opinion about any event to evaluate it. 12. Which one of the following is good example of secondary source? (a) Constitution of India (b) My experiments with truth (Book by Gandhi) (c) NCERT books (d) None of these

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13. Which one of the following is a good example of paradigm shift in teaching? (a) The idea of teacher teaches, a learner learns (b) The idea of curriculum to classroom (c) The idea of teacher teaches and then learner learns (d) The idea of argumentative learning to perspective learning 14. What is the full form of HOTS? (a) Higher order thinking skills (b) Higher order teaching skills (c) Higher order temporary skills (d) Higher order talking skills 15. First-hand substantial proof or evidence is known as: (a) True source (b) Reliable source (c) Original source (d) Primary source

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CHAPTER

Evaluation in Social Science

LEARNING OBjECTIVES • • • • •

Understand the concept of evaluation in social science Engage with the purpose and need of evaluation in social science Know the process and the strategies to evaluate in social science Elaborate the difference between measurement, assessment, and evaluation Explore the challenges of evaluation in social science

INTRODUCTION What my students have learnt is a very fundamental question every teacher asks to oneself, and everyone gets a different kind of answer to this. There are reasons for this, which we will be discussing later in this chapter, but here, we are more concerned about the processes of evaluation in social science. Important questions that every Social science teacher must ask to oneself are the following: How well do the learners learn? How can they become better? Where do we change the pedagogic practices? A very common pattern of evaluating the learners is to make them take a test and evaluate their learning and performances. If the learner’s score is 60 marks out of 100 marks, then the teacher may think that the learner is above average, but actually this does not provide a complete and accurate picture of the student’s learning in Social science because such a standardised test does not help to understand the learner’s learning about Social science. Therefore, it is important to evaluate the learner at all the levels and maximum ways of evaluation. It must be a combination of summative and formative evaluation. Along with this, it is also important that the teacher must know all kinds of strategies and ways of evaluation. Such few ways can be assessment of learning, assessment for learning and assessment as learning. Another important question that can be asked here, when we know that learning and assessment cannot be separated, is why there is a need for specially organised evaluation. It must be a part of teaching–learning process or inherent in the pedagogic practices. In other words, it can be put as ‘Do we need to do evaluation at all?’ A more useful question that may be asked here is why do we try to evaluate the knowledge of a learner rather than other aspects such as skills, ability, and so on? Why do we see changes in

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396 | Chapter 6 Evaluation in Social Science the evaluation process from time to time? Why is there a need for a common evaluation pattern or process, knowing that the entry point in education is different for every individual, and so on. Evaluation becomes more significant and crucial in social science because the way this is done in schools (very objective) does not match with the nature of social science. In such a situation, questions arise such as what is the role of evaluation in Social science for teaching and learning? What kind of association or relationship does the teacher try to visualise between objectives of social science and outcomes of learning? Does the learner have any role in his/her own evaluation? How is the parent’s role seen in evaluation? Does evaluation in social science get restricted to written examination or is it beyond this? How one decides on the criterion to evaluate social science is very important and significant, which needs to be explored. Largely in India, one can hear that social science students are not doing well. However, the fundamental question is that what does ‘doing not good’ here mean. Are they talking about test or assessment or measurement or evaluation? All these terms and ideas are used interchangeably, which creates much confusion. This chapter will try to deal with the questions and concerns about the evaluation in social science.

PURPOSE OF EVALUATION Teaching is collectively defined as planning, instructing, and evaluation. Further in evaluation, we have questions such as how one come to know that he/she has achieved the objectives and what difference they are making? It is important to understand that evaluation is one of the difficult tasks in education. With countless diversities, individual uniqueness, and teacher’s own perspectives about evaluation, it has become more challenging. A teacher has to have updated records of each learner to provide a proper feedback. Before we move ahead to discuss about the details of evaluation, three points discussed below are important to know and keep in mind, wherever and whenever we talk about evaluation in social science.

Largely Learner Learns What Is Provided in the Classroom Interaction It means in most of the cases, learners’ learning is dependent on textbooks and interactions taking place during the session. Students also believe that what has not been discussed in the class will not be evaluated. Therefore, their knowledge is, largely, tested rather than their skills, abilities, and capabilities.

Students’ Context (Social and Economic) Has a Great Role to Play in Their Learning Outcomes Family and community are the very influential institutions that play an important role in learner’s learning. The association of these two with a school will be beneficial for the learners. Social and

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economic contexts play an important role not only because poor and low social strata have less intelligence but also low education, and its transition, curriculum, and evaluation are developed according to a particular way that suites few people and rejects the majority. Therefore, it is important for a teacher to understand such a social context.

Learners Learn More When They Are Given Chance for Inquiry in the Community Learners are more comfortable when they get a chance to learn in the community they live. This makes them to be associated and developed a sense of attachment not only with the community but also with the concept expected to be learner. Evaluation is a process which helps to achieve many objectives. Different stakeholders of education may perceive it in different ways, such as for teachers, it is to become aware about their own teaching, which provides a feedback and future action plan. In addition, the teacher will come to know the strengths and weaknesses of their learners, and the learners in turn will also become aware of their own learning and knowledge and what and how they have to move ahead, and so on. In brief, evaluation is needed to accomplish the pedagogic objective, to explore the cause of success and failure, to understand why and where learners are lacking, and what can be done to provide scaffold to them to know how their learning can become progressive and to get a feedback about teacher’s own teaching processes. However, what we call as a good evaluation is a big question to be understood if it cannot be answered. We can engage ourselves in this discussion in two ways: first, understanding traditional way of evaluation and modern way of evaluation. The traditional view perceived evaluation as a mechanism to check the intellectuality of a learner. Its focus was more on subjects, social needs, achievements, and products of learning with emphasis on knowing, understanding, achieving mastery, and mostly convergent thinking. In the traditional view, goals were usually set by the teachers for excellence in the entire process; the teachers’ role was to instruct and the learners’ role was to flow with what has been said by the teachers and learn the concepts; while the final objective of teaching was to check by measurement and evaluation, the learners’ knowledge and provide them placement (Kumar, Sandeep, 2015, p. 157). However, the modern ways of evaluation are known to be more progressive in different ways than the traditional. It represents assessment processes based on humanistic approach, where the focus is more on the learners, their individual needs, feelings, interests, and so on. It underscores the importance of how a child perceives the world and stresses on the child’s behaviour, creativity, and divergent thinking. In the modern view, goals are determined by learners, giving them scope for adjustment and showcase their individuality. The teacher’s role becomes more like that of a motivator or facilitator who does not impose his or her ideas on the learners. Learners take the lead for learning in the form of live practices through active participation. The purpose of testing is to gauge the learning and diagnose the problems faced by learners while guiding them with appropriate inputs (Kumar, Sandeep, 2015, p. 157).

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HOW TO EVALUATE As we have discussed so far, evaluation has been understood in a variety of ways. Here we will understand the very fundamental question, that is, whom to evaluate? However, before we move ahead, we have to understand the fundamental idea behind various terms which have been used interchangeably. These are measurement, assessment, and evaluation. 1. Evaluation expressed in number or quantitative terms is known as measurement, such as obtained marks out of some already fixed marks (80 marks out of 100 marks). 2. We can obtain information about the learners’ performance through a variety of ways. The ways of obtaining this information are called assessment. 3. Evaluation helps to make decision about the learner’s performance and needful pedagogy. There are specific kinds of function of evaluation: one which is observable and other which in covert or hidden. The observable function may include enabling the learners to know about their performance and learning outcomes, organising collaborative work teams, providing spaces for better learning, motivating learning and achievements, diagnosing problems of learners, changing and setting learning objectives as per the needs of the learners, and changing pedagogic process as per set objectives. Although the hidden and silent function of evaluation is not visible to all, its effects gradually become visible in learners, but after a substantial time. These functions may include helping and preparing learners for their occupational needs, developing sense of collaboration and its importance, maintaining learner’s behaviour and ensuring conformity, and so on.

Need of Evaluation for Learner’s Learning in Social Science If we ask teachers why they evaluate their learners, there will be a common answer from many that they have to grade their learners, but this is a very narrow meaning of evaluation. In its broader sense, it has a different meaning altogether. There is a need to understand the social temperament of learners through evaluation. Largely, the purpose of evaluation in social science should be to explore the social critical abilities of the learner, with which they will be able to analyse the social issues and concerns. Teaching Social science at school has many objectives; therefore, to see the accomplishment of those objectives, evaluation is needed in social sciences. Evaluation can be used for a variety of purpose. To understand the ability, interest, and capabilities of learner, the teacher uses placement evaluation. Diagnostic evaluation is used to understand the problem areas of children in the learning process. These help teachers to become aware about the issues and challenges a learner faces, which help teachers to make plans for further action. Another kind of evaluation is summative evaluation in which the teacher teaches the entire course and at the end evaluates learner’s learning. It provides a summary of the accomplishment level and occurs at the end of the unit of instruction. Normally, it is evaluated by a test taken by all the students after completion of any unit or course. The biggest drawback of

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this evaluation is that it does not provide scope for feedback to the learners. On the other hand, formative processes provide good enough space of feedback as it is conducted during the teaching and learning process, where teacher can make a better use of evaluation because it takes place many times on short intervals throughout the year. It not only deals with what learners has learned but also deals with how students are learning and where is the scope of change in pedagogy for better outcomes. Other kinds of categorisation of evaluation can be in forms of norm reference evaluation and criterion reference evaluation. Norm reference evaluation is the system most commonly used in schools. It is a system in which an individual child is judged on specific tests or on general performance in relation to the achievement of others, and it can be understood in terms of the normal probability curve. On the other hand, criterion reference evaluation is useful in measuring individual competency. Therefore, it is useful in formative evaluation. It also provides instructional help and enables the progress of the learners over a period of time. That is how norm reference evaluation serves the purpose of scoring and measures the learner’s competency relative to each other rather than in an individualised manner. On the other hand, in criterion reference evaluation, each student has to meet the expected standard (Kumar, Sandeep, 2015). Overall, the goal of evaluation in social science is to provide a need-based feedback to the learners for a better learning. It also helps in various kinds of decision-making. It is expected from evaluation in social science that it evaluates the learners’ ideas, values, experiences, and beliefs towards developing a humane society. It also evaluated the learners’ understanding about the relationship between a person and a community. It also aims to evaluate the social science temperament which is different from science. The understanding of learners about diversity, citizenship, and other social concerns also need to be evaluated. The above discussion pointed out the various reasons for which evaluation need to be done in social science, which are as follows: 1. Progress in learning: Evaluation in social science is important to see the progress in learners about the various concepts of social science. It also deals with the changing idea over a period of time. How have the learners’ ways of argument, rational, and analysis evolved? Hence, to know the learning progress in various dimensions of social science evaluation is needed. 2. To become aware about learner’s knowledge and abilities: Every teacher would like to know about the knowledge a child has acquired and what he/she can do. To know this, repeated interaction in the form of dialogue will help teacher to know about learners’ ability and knowledge and can facilitate further learning of the learners. 3. To ensure everyone’s learning: It is important for a teacher to make sure no one is left behind in learning processes. Everyone must get a chance of the appropriate environment for learning and getting passed. Evaluation in social science will provide the change to everyone. Because with the help of evaluation, the teacher will be able to know the abilities and scope of improvement in learners and with help of special scaffolding, every learner will become capable in social science.

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400 | Chapter 6 Evaluation in Social Science 4. Improvement in pedagogy: One of the benefits of evaluation is to provide information to change and improve pedagogy as per the needs of the learners. Teacher will be able to identify the problems of the learners and can change his/her pedagogic processes with the class. Evaluation in social science enables the teacher to deal with the needs of an individual and develop classroom processes accordingly. Teacher will also be able to know that what kinds of strategies do not work with any learner and, hence, there is a need to change it. This change will also improve the abilities of teacher and learners. 5. Dealing with diverse needs: In India, we have socially and culturally diverse classroom, where learners share unique social and cultural practices. In one sense, it is good for a Social science class and, on the other hand, it is a challenge for the teacher to deal with all diversities in the class. Evaluation provides a tool to help the teacher to understand the needs of the learner and provide appropriate environment. However, evaluation must be comprehensive which cater to the needs of the learners in the class. A continuous engagement will give this change to teachers and learners to deal effectively with diversity in a positive sense. 6. Continuous feedback: Continuous feedback is an essential part of every subject, but for a subject like Social science, it is more important as it deals with everyday practices, where there is no final formula for anything. Feedback provides authentic information about the learners’ ability and scope of improvement. This feedback also helps parents to understand the need of their child to facilitate accordingly. Hence, the triangle of teacher, learners, and parents together will change the entire school education in a progressive way.

ASSESSMENT So far we have seen the meaning of evaluation and some of its methods. Now, we will engage ourselves in understanding the meaning of assessment and its types. In assessment, we obtain information about the learner to say something about his/her abilities and achievements. We can obtain information about learners’ performance in a variety of ways. The ways of obtaining this information is called assessment. We can understand assessment in three broad ways:

Assessment of Learning The purpose of assessment of learning is usually summative and is mostly done at the end of a task or a unit of work. It deals more with the achievement of expected outcomes of the learning process through records, reports, and so on. The outcomes of this assessment become public in terms of symbols, marks, or grades. It is summative in nature and taken at the end of the course. In this assessment, learners have to meet with the set standards and expectations, and it does not provide space of feedback.

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Assessment for Learning Assessment of learning is particularly associated with the formative and diagnostic methods of evaluation. This assessment takes place during the teaching and learning process, not at the end of teaching. Learners become conscious about what is to be expected, and the continuous feedback provides space for improvement. Portfolios, observation, classroom discussions, and many such ways can be used for this assessment. Continuous feedback is the strength of this assessment.

Assessment as Learning Assessment as learning provides space to learners to become aware about their own learning. This process is closely associated with meta-cognitive abilities. It helps students to be able to know about themselves as learners. Learners are engaged in reflective processes on a regular basis. They do self-assessment about their abilities and capabilities. This process is mediated by peers, parents, and teachers. The best part of assessment as learning is that learners become aware about their own learning process (Kumar, Sandeep, 2015).

CONTINUOUS COMPREHENSIVE EVALUATION The aims of education is to draw out the capabilities of a person to the fullest so that he or she can become an active, aware, and responsible member of the society; therefore, one of the objectives of education is to build an attitude, skill, and capability in learners. In this process, evaluation becomes significantly important. However, evaluation is closely associated with classroom practices. School as a social place helps us to arrive at certain principle of educational practice. It is now understood that a child understands and develops a concept in a continuous process especially in social science. Therefore, their understanding must also be evaluated continuously (Kumar, Sandeep, 2015). The nature of social science is such that continuous evaluation suits best to it. Moreover, descriptive processes of evaluation will be more suitable than objective ones. Continuous and comprehensive evaluation will provide space to understand learners’ ability with reference to their meta-cognitive abilities associated with social problems, issues, and concerns. Social science is a discipline where long terms and constant engagement help learners to understand the concept. Therefore, it is important that teacher also evaluate their understanding continuously. Daily experiences are also an important part of Social science learning, therefore, assessment or evaluation also must be based on real-life context so that an explicit relationship can be understood regarding social aptitude of a child. We believe that all knowledge in social science is socially embedded and has a social context; therefore, it can be understood in the same social context. Continuous comprehensive evaluation will evaluate various essential features with reference to social science, which are as follows: 1. Construction of knowledge and development of skills in social science. 2. Understanding of learners’ idea, perspective, and perception about social science concepts.

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402 | Chapter 6 Evaluation in Social Science 3. Abilities of healthy and productive social life. 4. Ability to deal with developmental challenges in Social science from one class to another. 5. Capabilities of learners to deal various unplanned situation in everyday practices. 6. Ability to work in a group, respecting others’ perspective, and co-construction of knowledge with dialogue.

TECHNIQUE OF EVALUATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE There are various ways which may help a teacher to evaluate the learning. Though it is important to understand that there is no hard and fast rule about the strategy, and it may vary as per the need of the context and situation. A teacher may use many ways to evaluate the understanding of learning. Few ways are discussed as follows:

Objective Testing Multiple choice questions, one word, fill in the blanks, true or false, and so on, comes under the objective type assessment. It means that the learner does not have space or opportunity to express one’s own idea because there is a final answer for all the questions and learners have to choose it. We can take examples of multiple choice questions as follows: Right to Education is a fundamental right of every child between the age 6 and 14 comes under which article of Indian constitution?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Article 21 Article 21 (A) Article 14 Article 14 (A)

Student has to choose one option out of the four. Such a kind of evaluation does not suite Social science subject, as it does not match its descriptive nature.

Short Question Answer A teacher can evaluate learners’ understanding in Social science by short descriptive questions, where learners have to answer the question in minimum fixed words. These questions demands students to answer the correct or the best answer within the given words limit. Learners are expected to avoid the contradicting or ambiguous statements, where answer needs to be pointed and clear. For example: Answer the following questions in 50 words. (a) What are the legislative powers of the president of India? (b) What are the characteristics of democracy?

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Long Question Answer In Social science, some learning objectives can be tested by long answers only, where learners are expected to share their perspective about any concept, issues, and debates. These types of questions expect learners to create their own response. One needs to know that it is easy to make a long question, but it is difficult to check as it may carry lots of personal understanding. Therefore, either question should give space to subjective interpretation or it should expect fixed perspectives. Examples given below will make it more understandable. (a) Critically review the issues and challenges of Indian democracy? Support you answer with suitable examples. This question provides space to the leaner to develop the question based on his/her own understanding, where there is space to develop one’s argument based on examples. The question given below does not give much space for personal understanding and expect to answer the question from a given perspective. (b) Discuss the characteristics of conflict theory given by Karl Marx. Both the questions are descriptive and long easy type, but the demand and expectation from the learners are quite different. A good Social science teacher will prefer question (a) over question (b), because first question gives more space to check the critical ability of learners.

Project Work Social science is a subject where everything cannot be evaluated through short- or long-type questions, which are expected to be written in a limited time. Project work provides sufficient time to think and work on any aspect of social science and prepare a project. Learners may decide their own area of project, and it can be given by a teacher also. Project work is a good way of evaluating learners in Social science because it provides the opportunity to engage, explore, elaborate, and explain the concept they chose to work with. Such as the following: Divide the class into various groups such as History, Geography, Political science, and so on, and allot them a project, such as for history group. ‘Work on different aspects of heritage sites in Delhi’ A group may collect information about when it is built, by whom, why, and so on. The group may also visit the heritage site in person to have first-hand experience and prepare report.

Detailed Assignment Assignment can be a way to assess the knowledge and the ability of learners in Social sciences. The teacher my provide a critical and analytical assignment which is descriptive in nature and need collaboration of various resources to complete it. The effort one has to put in such an assignment will show his/her ability to engage with the issues of social sciences. An example of such

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404 | Chapter 6 Evaluation in Social Science an assignment can be ‘How democracy has been conceptualised by various thinkers? Choose any four and evaluate the present situation of Indian democracy’.

Oral Communication It is a fact that every child cannot express in written form, whereas they can express better orally. Therefore, a teacher must be open for oral tests, where learners are expected to make some presentation or discus about any topic from the subject Social science. The teacher may organise presentation session, group discussion, individual interviews, and so on.

Exhibition Teacher may ask the learner to organise an exhibition based on the different aspects of social science such as drawing, sculpture, and photographs of any historical visit. This exhibition can be open for the entire school and subject teacher can do evaluation. Such exhibition can be organised for political science and geography also.

Group Work Group work is one of the best ways of teaching and assessing in Social sciences. Group work can be organised in any form, for example, group assignment, group discussion, group activity, and so on. However, long group discussion is the best way of work where teacher can assess on the spot. Any topic can be allotted to the group, and they may discuss among themselves and then can discuss with other groups. One such method is jigsaw method.

CHALLENGE OF EVALUATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE Social science is a discipline with subjective nature. It deals with human life and human relations and relation with various other institutions of the society. However, it is not very easy to evaluate ones understanding in all such areas. Therefore, evaluation in social science has to face many challenges and issues. Some of such challenges are discussed below:

Accountability Accountability means someone should be held responsible for meeting the agreed-upon goals and actions. In a school system, who will be responsible for learning and evaluation is not yet fixed. And when we say this, it does not mean to conduct examination, it means the responsibility of learning and taking responsibility. The major organisations such as schools, NCERT, and CBSE are not working in a collaborative manner; rather, they work in a hierarchical manner, such as schoolteachers will be included in textbook writing by NCERT, and if it is done, it is simply a formality. Therefore, who is responsible for what is not decided and if decided, it is segregated.

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How to Ensure Minimum Ability Learning It is important to define and identify the minimum level of ability to be learned. Without such a level, one will not be able to decide what is to be learned and kinds of opportunities need to be provided. Minimum ability does not mean some standardised abilities; rather these will be based on individual uniqueness. However, generally no such ways have been used in the evaluation in social science, rather one standard test is used to evaluate the learners’ ability which does not do justice with learners and their abilities.

Prejudices and Biases in Evaluation Social science as a discipline carry subjectivity, which if used correctively can become the strength or if not, then become a challenge for social science evaluation. Teacher’s own biases about any concepts, ideas, and debatable issues may create problems and challenges in the evaluation process of social science. It is also important to understand that culture – fair – test is not a very good option for the subject like Social science. Therefore, a teacher has to be without any bias, but to what extent one can make sure that teacher will leave his/her ideas behind. Therefore, in Social science, a person’s bias plays an important role not only in curriculum and teaching but also in evaluation.

SIGNIFICANT POINTS TO KEEP IN MIND ➨ Planning, instructing, and evaluation collectively define teaching. ➨ Largely, the learner learns what is provided in the classroom interaction. ➨ Students’ context (social and economic) has a great role to play in their learning outcomes. ➨ Learners learn more when they are given a chance for inquiry in the community. ➨ The traditional view perceived evolution as a mechanism to check the intellectuality of a learner. Its focus was more on subject, social needs, achievement, and product or learning with emphasis on knowing, understanding, achieving mastery, and mostly convergent thinking. ➨ Modern ways of evaluation which can also be known as progressive in different ways than traditional ways represents assessment processes based on humanistic approach, where the focus is more on learners, their individual needs, feeling, interests, and so on. ➨ Evaluation expressed in number or quantitative terms is known as measurement, such as obtained marks out of some already fixed marks (80 marks out of 100 marks). ➨ We can obtain information about learners’ performance in a variety of ways. The ways of obtaining this information is called assessment. ➨ Evaluation helps to make decision-making about learner’s performance and needful pedagogy. ➨ There are various kinds of evaluation named placement evaluation, diagnostic evaluation, summative evaluation, and formative evaluation.

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406 | Chapter 6 Evaluation in Social Science ➨ Evaluation need to be done in social sciences for the following reasons: ■ To see progress in learning ■ To become aware about learner’s knowledge and abilities ■ To ensure everyone’s learning ■ Improvement in pedagogy ■ Dealing with divers needs ■ Continuous feedback ➨ There are three kinds of assessments named assessment of learning, assessment for learning, and assessment as learning. ➨ Evaluation in social science can be done with the help of objective testing, short question answer, long question answer, project work, assignment, oral communication, exhibition, and so on.

Check Your Progress 1. What is the meaning of evaluation? Why there is a need to do evaluation of the learning in Social science? 2. What are the basic points a Social science teacher must keep in mind while evaluation? 3. Discus the differences between norm reference and criteria reference test in social science? 4. What are diagnostic tests? What is the importance of this test in evaluation in social science? 5. Discuss the difference between continuous and comprehensive evaluation and traditional way of evaluation.

6. As a Social science teacher, which are the techniques you would like to use to evaluate your learners and why? Discuss with suitable examples. 7. Write short note on the following: (a) Assessment of learning in Social science (b) Assessment for learning in Social science (c) Assessment as learner in Social science 8. Discuss some of the challenges you may face during assessment and evaluation in social science.

Objective Questions 1. Objective evaluation is not of much significance in social science, because (a) it does not match with the nature of social science.

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(b) it does not match with the nature of students. (c) it does not match with the nature of curriculum.

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(d) it does not match with the nature of teacher. 2. Largely students learn what is provided (a) in the family interaction. (b) in the school environmental interaction. (c) in the classroom interaction. (d) in the friends interaction. 3. Which one of the following students’ context has a great role to play in their learning outcomes? (a) Social and economic (b) Economic and environmental (c) Social and peer group (d) Family and heredity 4. Learners are more comfortable when they get chance to learn (a) in the friend’s circle. (b) in the neighbourhood. (c) in the community they live. (d) None of these 5. Evaluation helps teacher to provide (a) feedback to learners. (b) information about learners’ demerits. (c) chance to the learner to reappear in the exam. (d) None of these 6. Evaluation expressed in number and quantity is known as: (a) Summative assessment (b) Formative assessment (c) Measurement (d) None of these 7. The way of obtaining information about learner’s performance in a variety of ways is known as:

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Evaluation Assessment Measurement Examination

8. Evaluation helps in decision-making about learners (a) performance and required pedagogy. (b) achievement and reward. (c) reinforcement and reward. (d) reward and punishment. 9. The process of evaluation in social science should largely explore (a) the social critical abilities of learners. (b) the emotional critical abilities of learner. (c) the creative abilities of learner. (d) None of these 10. Evaluation conducted after completing the course is called summative. It is associated with (a) assessment as learning. (b) assessment for learning. (c) assessment of learning. (d) None of these 11. Which type of evaluation provides scope for feedback as it is conducted during the teaching–learning process? (a) Summative evaluation (b) Formative evaluation (c) Diagnostic evaluation (d) Assessment of learning 12. To understand the ability, interest, and capabilities of learner, teacher uses: (a) Summative evaluation (b) Formative evaluation (c) Placement evaluation (d) None of these

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408 | Chapter 6 Evaluation in Social Science 13. Diagnostic evaluation is used to understand the ____________ of children in learning process. (a) problem areas (b) achievement areas (c) learned areas (d) forgotten areas 14. Which of the following statement/ statements is/are incorrect about the evaluation?

(i) To become aware about learner’s knowledge (ii) To ensure every ones learning (iii) To improve pedagogy (iv) To deal with diverse needs

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

(i) and (ii) (ii) and (iv) (i), (ii), and (iv) All of these

15. The fundamental difference between traditional and modern approach to evaluation is (a) the nature of student’s activities. (b) the role of academic achievement. (c) the system of grading. (d) technological dominance.

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Social Science

Model Test Paper-I 1. Narmada valley related to: (a) Harappa (b) Vedic age (c) Hunting and gathering (d) None of these

6. Bhimbetka caves are famous for: (a) Rock paintings (b) Stone tools (c) Wood tools (d) None of these

2. Magadha was the biggest kingdom ______ years ago. (a) 1500 (b) 2000 (c) 2500 (d) 3000

7. The beginning of the Neolithic was: (a) 10,000 years ago (b) 20,000 years ago (c) 25,000 years ago (d) 40,000 years ago

3. Where are Sulaiman and Kirthar Hills located in Indian subcontinent? (a) Southwest (b) Northeast (c) Northwest (d) Southeast 4. Which one of the following cities was not a Neolithic site? (a) Mehrgarh (b) Chirand (c) Koldihwa (d) Hunsgi 5. Inamgaon was the: (a) Earliest city (b) Earliest town (c) Earliest kingdom (d) Earliest village

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8. Where is the most famous Neolithic site Catal Huyuk located? (a) France (b) Egypt (c) Iran (d) Turkey 9. The beginning of settlement in Mehrgarh started _______ years ago. (a) 8000 (b) 6000 (c) 4000 (d) 3500 10. The people of Burzahom lived in: (a) Triangular houses (b) Right angular house (c) Two storey houses (d) Dug houses

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M2 | Model Test Paper-I 11. Harappan site Surkotada is located in: (a) Punjab (b) Uttar Pradesh (c) Sindh (d) Gujarat 12. Which one of the following cities is not related to Harappan civilisation? (a) Rakhigarhi (b) Ganweriwala (c) Koshal (d) Sotkakoh 13. A stone statue of a man was found in: (a) Harappa (b) Mohenjo-daro (c) Chanhudaro (d) Kalibangan 14. The first evidence of cotton cultivation was found in: (a) Harappa (b) Inamgaon (c) Mehrgarh (d) Lothal 15. Mummies are related to: (a) Indus civilisation (b) Mesopotamia civilisation (c) Egyptian civilisation (d) Chinese civilisation 16. Rig Veda hymns are known as: (a) Pankti (b) Paddh (c) Paragraph (d) Sukta 17. How many Mahajanapadas were mentioned in Buddhist and Jaina texts? (a) Eleven (b) Fourteen

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(c) Sixteen (d) Eighteen 18. Which word was used for a group that has many members? (a) Rana (b) Sana (c) Mana (d) Gana 19. Sangha means: (a) Government (b) Authority (c) Autonomy (d) Organisation/association 20. Vajjis was example of: (a) Democracy (b) Monarchy (c) Aristocracy (d) Sangha 21. Which one of the following is the innermost layer of the earth? (a) Crust (b) Core (c) Mantle (d) None of these 22. Which of following does not come under the category of fossil fuels? (a) Coal (b) Petroleum (c) Gas (d) All of these 23. Which layer of the atmosphere is ideal for jet airplanes? (a) Stratosphere (b) Troposphere (c) Ozonosphere (d) Ionosphere

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Social Science | M3 24. What is the name of instrument that measures air pressure? (a) Barometer (b) Seismograph (c) Anemometer (d) All of these 25. Nomadic cultivation is a type of cultivation in which farmers usually do: (a) Animal grazing (b) Pulses cropping (c) Cereal cropping (d) All of these 26. Which of the following crop is not the crop of kharif? (a) Fodder (b) Rice (c) Mustard (d) Barley 27. Which longitude line is called the international date line? (a) 180 degree (b) 90 degree (c) 120 degree (d) 24 degree 28. What is the latitude value of equator? (a) 0 latitude (b) 66½ latitude (c) 23 latitude (d) 90½ latitude 29. Which one of the following statement describes Karka Sankranti? (a) Longest day in northern hemisphere (b) Shortest day in northern hemisphere (c) Longest day in southern hemisphere (d) Shortest day in southern hemisphere 30. Which of the following planet revolves clockwise?

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Venus Earth Mars Jupiter

31. Which one of the following shapes is the shape of earth? (a) Oblate spheroid (b) Circular (c) Oval (d) Ellipses 32. Which one of the following is the example of non-ferrous minerals? (a) Copper (b) Iron (c) Steal (d) Aluminium 33. Which of the following is the example of inorganic minerals? (a) Limestone (b) Petroleum (c) Coal (d) All of these 34. A narrow water way which joins two different gulfs, oceans, or seas is called: (a) Strait (b) Isthmus (c) Canal (d) Sea lake 35. Panama is the example of: (a) Isthmus (b) Strait (c) Canal (d) Lake 36. Which of the following is measured by anemometer? (a) Wind (b) Pressure

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M4 | Model Test Paper-I (c) Moisture (d) All of these

37. According to census 2001, India has the highest number of immigrants from the county: (a) Bangladesh (b) Pakistan (c) Sri Lanka (d) Nepal

43. ____________ cannot be known as a demerit of Proportional Representation System. (a) Taking towards two party system (b) Promotion of coalition government (c) Promotion of multi-party system (d) All of these

38. Which one of the following is the longest train route of the world? (a) Trans-Siberian route (b) Toronto to Vancouver (c) Shanghai to Lhasa (d) Dibrugarh to Kanyakumari

44. Proportional representation system is known for (a) appropriate representation of minorities. (b) minor voters are also given right to vote. (c) socioeconomic backward people get more right than other. (d) minority people are given more than on voting right.

39. Which of the following state is the least populated state of India? (a) Sikkim (b) Mizoram (c) Nagaland (d) Assam 40. Which one of the following is the best example of sedimentary rocks? (a) Limestone (b) Mica (c) Graphite (d) All of these 41. Swaraj exists within an Empire and not beyond it. (a) Bal Gangadhar Tilak (b) Lala Lajpat Roy (c) Jawaharlal Nehru (d) Mahatma Gandhi 42. As an Indian, we have many rights. One of such right is to form association. This is a __________ right. (a) legal (b) political

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45. Who can disqualify any member of Lok Sabha? (a) President (b) Prime Minister (c) Secretary of Parliament (d) Speaker 46. Who said ‘Swaraj is my birth right and I shall have it.’? (a) Nehru (b) Bal Gangadhar Tilak (c) Subhash Chandra Bose (d) None of these 47. The ideas that ‘God give us life and therefore liberty too’ is given by: (a) Mill (b) Gandhi (c) Jefferson (d) Hobbes 48. Everyone is entitled for civil right given by: (a) The society (b) The nature

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Social Science | M5 (c) The state (d) None of these 49. The idea of distributive justice is given by: (a) Aristotle (b) Plato (c) Lack (d) Hobbes 50. Kothari wrote a book named: (a) State against Democracy (b) State of Democracy (c) Democratic Sate (d) Democracy against State

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Political parties Panchayati Raj Election commission The post of president

56. The process of delegation is associated with: (a) Decentralisation (b) Centralisation (c) All of these (d) None of these

51. Authority in democracy reside in: (a) The political party (b) The people (c) The constitution (d) The society

57. When a person is trying to plan strategies from the lowest level is associated with: (a) Actual democracy (b) Top level choice of people (c) Choice of people with reference to powerful group (d) None of these

52. Who introduced the term ‘Bureaucratic’? (a) Gramsci (b) Mill (c) Lock (d) Gournay

58. Political defection is associated with (a) 42nd amendment of the constitution. (b) 52nd amendment of the constitution. (c) 62nd amendment of the constitution. (d) 70th amendment of the constitution.

53. Weber believed that bureaucracy is (a) appointed people of administration. (b) an instrument which can manipulate. (c) a group of corrupt. (d) a group of various exclusive kinds of people in authority.

59. A unitary system can best be represented by (a) territorial division subordinates the body of central government. (b) territorial division coordinates with the central government. (c) a process or agency to settle the national unity. (d) when government is under the control of single individual.

54. The famous book named Bureaucracy, Bureaucratisation and De-Bureaucratisation is associated with: (a) Eisenstadt (b) Weber (c) Gramsci (d) None of these 55. Which one of the following can be understood as representation of political democracy?

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60. Local body election will take place _______________ as per 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments. (a) after every 2 years (b) after every 5 year (c) after every 3 years (d) after every 6 years

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Model Test Paper-II 1. First time in history, Democracy is used by the people of: (a) Macedonia (b) Sparta (c) Athens (d) Troy 2. In North India, the village headman known as: (a) Gramik (b) Grama Shree (c) Grama bhojaka (d) Gram bhattaraka 3. 2000 years ago, which city become the second capitals of Kushans? (a) Taxila (b) Pataliputra (c) Ujjain (d) Mathura 4. Which word is used for the associations of crafts persons and merchants? (a) Shahins (b) Shorins (c) Shokins (d) Shrenis 5. Who is the writer of Arthashastra? (a) Chandragupta (b) Patanjali (c) Kalhan (d) Chanakya

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6. Arikamedu was centre of trade with: (a) Arabs (b) Greeks (c) Mesopotamia (d) Romans 7. Which word is used for big landlords in Tamil? (a) Kadaisiya (b) Adimai (c) Uzhavar (d) Vellalar 8. In Tamil, ordinary ploughmen was known as: (a) Uzhavar (b) Kadaisiya (c) Adimai (d) None of these 9. Which metal is used to punch-marked coins? (a) Tin (b) Ivory (c) Silver (d) Gold 10. Where the ring well was found? (a) Meerut (b) Delhi (c) Kashi (d) Pataliputra 11. The ring wells were used for: (a) Bathing (b) Irrigation

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Social Science | M7 (c) Drainage (d) Washing clothes

18. The idea of bhakti was present in the: (a) Ramayana (b) Upanishad (c) Gita (d) Veda

12. Taxila and Mathura were centres of: (a) Art and culture (b) Pilgrimage (c) Military (d) None of these 13. The settlement of Arikamedu between_____ years ago. (a) 2150–1750 (b) 2200–1900 (c) 2300–2200 (d) 2400–2150

was

19. The Iranian and Arabs used ______ word to refer the people who lived in the east of Sindhu River. (a) Indu (b) Sindu (c) Hindo (d) None of these

14. Satavahana rulers were known as: (a) Lord of Dakshinapatha (b) Lord of routes (c) Lord of kingdom (d) Lord of war

20. Around 2000 years ago, Jesus Christ was born in: (a) Darussalam (b) Jerusalem (c) Bethlehem (d) Rome

15. Who was the most famous king of Kushans? (a) Kanishaka (b) Kadphises (c) Vasishka (d) Huvishka

21. Which of the following union territory has least population? (a) Lakshadweep (b) Daman and Diu (c) Dadra and Nagar Haveli (d) Andaman and Nicobar Islands

16. How many years ago Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Faxian came to Indian subcontinent? (a) 1800 years ago (b) 1700 years ago (c) 1600 years ago (d) 1550 years ago

22. Which one of the following is not the main source of male migration in India? (a) Employment (b) Marriage (c) Education (d) Business

17. Nalanda was a unique centre of: (a) Prayer (b) Trade (c) Buddhist learning (d) Military warfare

23. What is relation of cities, Manchester and Liverpool with Rail? (a) It was first railway route of the world (b) It was first railway route of diesel engine

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M8 | Model Test Paper-II (c) Both the cites are famous for making metro rail coaches (d) None of these 24. Resources that may be used in future is called: (a) Potential resources (b) Actual resources (c) Renewable resources (d) Non-renewable resources

(c) Stratosphere is the second layer of atmosphere. (d) None of these is wrong. 30. Hygrometer is used for measuring: (a) Moisture (b) Wind (c) Pressure (d) All of these

25. Digboi of Assam is famous for: (a) First petroleum producing region (b) Stocks of coal (c) Mines of gold (d) All of these

31. Which one of the following is the characteristic of staircase cultivation? (a) Farming on hilly areas (b) Farming on plains (c) Farming on coastal areas (d) Animal grazing

26. Which of the following is the deepest point of sea? (a) Mariana trench (b) Bonin trench (c) Kuril trench (d) New Britain trench

32. Which of the following grain needs large quantity of water to grow successfully? (a) Rice (b) Wheat (c) Sugarcane (d) Maize

27. Which of the following statement is correct for Titicaca Lake? (a) Fresh water lake (b) Salty water lake (c) Shortest lake (d) None of these

33. Which one of the following statement is not correct? (a) Length of ozonosphere is 20 to 32 km. (b) Ozonosphere absorbs the ultraviolet rays of sun. (c) Ozonosphere is the upper portion of atmosphere. (d) Ozonosphere is discovered by Charles Fabry.

28. Which of the following statement is correct for Govind Sagar Lake? (a) Manmade (b) Natural (c) Sea lake (d) Crater lake 29. Which of the following statement is wrong? (a) Stratosphere is good for jet airplanes. (b) Stratosphere is the layer of climate changes.

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34. Which of following gas is the major gas of atmosphere? (a) Nitrogen (b) Helium (c) Hydrogen (d) Oxygen

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Social Science | M9 35. What is the latitude measure at Antarctic Circle? (a) 66½ southern latitude (b) 23½ southern latitude (c) 0 latitude (d) 60 northern latitude 36. The longest day in southern hemisphere is called: (a) Makar Sankranti (b) Karka Sankranti (c) Bada din (d) None of these 37. Which of the following rock is formed due to cooling down of magma? (a) Igneous rock (b) Sedimentary rock (c) Metamorphic rocks (d) None of these 38. Active volcano’s ring around pacific ocean is called: (a) Ring of pacific (b) Ring of sea (c) Lords of ring (d) All of these 39. Which of clockwise? (a) Venus (b) Jupiter (c) Mars (d) Earth

following

planet

revolves

40. Which of following is the nearest star of the earth? (a) Proxima Centauri (b) Alpha Centauri (c) Ross 248 (d) Gliese 445

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41. The reservation of SCs and STs in panchayat is done by which of the following Article of Indian constitution? (a) 143-D (b) 243-S (c) 243-V (d) 243-Q 42. PIL (Public Interest Litigation) is began by: (a) Amendment in the constitution (b) Judicial decision (c) Parliament Act (d) None of these 43. Name the chairperson of the state committee of the constituent assembly: (a) Jawaharlal Nehru (b) B. R. Ambedkar (c) Dr Rajendra Prasad (d) Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel 44. Deficit represents: (a) Deficient in of democratic control (b) Deficient in democratic institution (c) Deficient in democratic authenticity (d) Deficient in democratic representation 45. Traditional concept of sovereignty is critiqued by pluralist, because (a) all the associations are equally important like state. (b) it opposes global co-operation. (c) it works against democracy. (d) it does not work effectively to resolve the international issues. 46. _________ is used by the British to develop an effective administration in India. (a) Expansion of military (b) Process of survey (c) Exploitation of India people (d) Collection of land revenue

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M10 | Model Test Paper-II 47. _____________ is known as a system when women are oppressed by men. (a) Modernity (b) Patriarchy (c) Hierarchy (d) None of these 48. The objective of social advertising is not (a) to change people’s thinking pattern. (b) to promote ones product for commercial value. (c) to encourage people to participate in social welfare activities. (d) to influence social groups. 49. Market can be explained as a (a) setting industry in a local area. (b) shop to make things available to the people made by industries. (c) trade in a specific type of thing. (d) All of these 50. Social customs had become part of discussion and debates in nineteenth century with the development of: (a) Newspapers (b) Theatre (c) Radio (d) Films 51. Immediately after independence India did not face (a) the problem of equal distribution of money among India and Britain. (b) Pakistani refugees. (c) economic crisis. (d) controlling princely state. 52. Some of the nations have not given universal adult franchise. They have some criteria behind this decision. What would be the criterion for this decision?

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Religion Education Sex (gender) Wealth

53. Which one of the following statement is not correct for social science? (a) It is vast and diverse subject includes various social concerns. (b) It works for widening the social and human values such as equality, liberty, and so on. (c) It works with social phenomenon and therefore cannot be scientific. (d) It develops analytical human being. 54. Which type of question will develop critical thinking? (a) Divergent questions (b) Closed question (c) Probing question (d) None of these 55. Which aspect you would like to focus in class while teaching gender? (a) These are two different categories. (b) Boys necessarily need to study as they will be earning money for family. (c) Critical discussion about gender issues. (d) All of these 56. The teaching approach to social science should: (a) Provide one answer to the question (b) Tell definitions of the concepts (c) Engage in stories and case studies to teach (d) None of these 57. Read the questions given below and select the question that will promote critical thinking in learner.

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Social Science | M11 (a) ‘New Delhi is the capital of India.’ True or false (b) Discuss about two laws government made to protect women. (c) Discuss the role of government to promote equality. (d) Comment on the secular nature of Indian states. 58. Which of the following activity is effective to teach diversity to Class VII? (a) Write about the problem of Kashmir. (b) Prepare a model for water conservation. (c) Prepare groups and discuss the burden a man faces in patriarchal society. (d) Discuss about the various types of clothing in India.

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59. A social science teacher wants to conduct diagnostic test with his learners. He wants to understand (a) where the learners are lagging behind. (b) to identify the learning problem learners facing in social science. (c) to plan a better teaching–learning environment for learners. (d) All of these 60. What do you understand by the rule of law? (a) Laws and rules are necessary for a democratic society. (b) Everybody equally entitled to all rules. (c) Laws are broad framework than rules. (d) None of these

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Model Test Paper-III 1. Harshacharita is a biography of king: (a) Ashoka (b) Chandragupta-I (c) Samudragupta (d) Harshavardhana 2. Sanchi Stupa is related to: (a) Buddhism (b) Jainism (c) Hinduism (d) Sikhism 3. Mahabalipuram temples are built on: (a) Single piece of stone (b) Half piece of stone (c) Two pieces of stone (d) Three pieces of stone 4. Ajanta caves are famous for their: (a) Architecture (b) Sculpture (c) Inscriptions (d) Paintings 5. A place where manuscripts and documents are stored and preserved is known as: (a) Pustak Mahal (b) Libraries (c) Archive (d) None of these 6. Quwwat ul-Islam mosque was built by: (a) Qutb ud-Din Aibak (b) Iltutmish

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(c) Balban (d) Raziyya 7. Hauz-i-Sultani was constructed by: (a) Iltutmish (b) Jalaluddin Khilji (c) Alauddin Khilji (d) Firuz Shah Tughluq 8. The Chahar Bagh was constructed in the regime of: (a) Akbar (b) Jahangir (c) Shah Jahan (d) Aurangzeb 9. Vijayanagara Empire founded in: (a) 1333 CE (b) 1334 CE (c) 1335 CE (d) 1336 CE 10. Banjara caravan are called: (a) Danda (b) Kanda (c) Tanda (d) None of these 11. Garha-Katanga belongs to: (a) Khonds (b) Koyas (c) Bhils (d) Gond

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Social Science | M13 12. Iranian ruler Nadir Shah attacked Delhi in: (a) 1707 CE (b) 1739 CE (c) 1757 CE (d) 1761 CE 13. The battle of Buxar was fought in: (a) 1757 CE (b) 1759 CE (c) 1760 CE (d) 1764 CE 14. Which one of the following was not annexed by the Doctrine of Lapse? (a) Satara (b) Udaipur (c) Jhansi (d) Mysore 15. The East India Company introduced new revenue system for agriculture in 1793 CE is known as: (a) Mahalwari (b) Permanent settlement (c) Temporary settlement (d) None of these 16. Apatani and Nishi Tribes are located in: (a) Arunachal Pradesh (b) Himachal Pradesh (c) Madhya Pradesh (d) Uttar Pradesh 17. Popular rebel of 1857 CE was known as: (a) Sepoy mutiny (b) First war of independence (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these 18. The Delhi college was shut down in: (a) 1857 CE (b) 1860 CE

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(c) 1877 CE (d) 1885 CE 19. New Delhi was constructed on: (a) Aravali hills (b) Deccan hills (c) Raisina hills (d) Ridge hills 20. Wood’s Despatch of 1854 is known as: (a) Magna Carta of Indian education system (b) Magna Carta of Indian military system (c) Magna Carta of Indian administrative system (d) None of these 21. Which of the following union territory has highest population? (a) Delhi (b) Chandigarh (c) Puduch*erry (d) Andaman and Nicobar Islands 22. Which one of the following is not the main source of female migration in India? (a) Marriage (b) Employment (c) Education (d) Natural disaster 23. Which is the longest train route in India? (a) Dibrugarh to Kanyakumari (b) Jammu Tawi to Kanyakumari (c) Kalka to Howrah (d) None of these 24. Resources that are available to use in present is called: (a) Actual resources (b) Potential resources (c) Renewable resources (d) None of these

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M14 | Model Test Paper-III 25. Valleys of Damodar is famous for: (a) Large stocks of coal (b) Many petroleum wells (c) Mines of gold and silver (d) None of these 26. Which of the following is the least deep point of the earth? (a) Kuril trench (b) New Britain trench (c) Mariana trench (d) Bonin trench 27. Barometer do not measure: (a) Wind speed (b) Moisture (c) Atmospheric pressure (d) None of these 28. Which of following statement is wrong for Dead Sea? (a) It is a fresh water lake. (b) It is a salty water lake. (c) It is situated near Jordan and Israel. (d) All of these are wrong. 29. Which of following statements is correct for Lunar Lake? (a) Crater lake (b) Isthmus lake (c) Manmade lake (d) None of these

(c) Irrigation cultivation (d) None of these 32. Which of following crop do not need direct sun light? (a) Coffee (b) Cotton (c) Jute (d) Peanuts 33. Which of the following crop is not the crop of zaid? (a) Cotton (b) Fodder (c) Gram (d) Jowar 34. Which of the following is the lowest portion of atmosphere? (a) Troposphere (b) Ionosphere (c) Stratosphere (d) Ozonosphere 35. What is the latitude measure of arctic circle? (a) 66½ northern latitude (b) 66½ southern latitude (c) 23½ northern latitude (d) 23½ southern latitude

30. Which of following statements is correct? (a) It is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. (b) It is the highest layer of the atmosphere. (c) It is good for airplanes. (d) All of these

36. Solar eclipse is the situation when (a) moon comes between the earth and the sun. (b) earth comes between the moon and the sun. (c) sun comes between earth and moon. (d) None of these

31. Which of following cultivation is the traditional way to maintain nutrition in soil? (a) Rotation cultivation (b) Staircase cultivation

37. Which one of the following places related with international date line ? (a) Greenwich (b) Lyon

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Social Science | M15 (c) Kiev (d) Minsk 38. Lime stone is the original form of: (a) Marble (b) Carbon (c) Lime (d) Sand 39. Good quality Gold and silver is mainly found in: (a) Igneous rock (b) Sedimentary rock (c) Metamorphic rock (d) Granite 40. Which of the following statement is the definition of blue moon? (a) Second full moon of a calendar month (b) First full moon of a calendar month (c) Last full moon of a calendar year (d) First full moon of a calendar year 41. The Panchayati Raj system work on __________ level(s). (a) Three (b) One (c) Four (d) Two 42. How can we re-establish the significance of social science? (a) By increasing the job opportunities (b) Developing empowered and critical thinkers (c) Establishing the need of studying social issues and concerns (d) All of these 43. The social science curriculum needs to reflect about

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(a) the interpersonal relation with reference to social phenomenon. (b) prioritizing national agendas over local ones. (c) developing civic sense. (d) important and relevant date in history. 44. There is a debate in the classroom that parliamentary form of democracy is not useful for India. How will you react to this as a teacher? (a) Ask them not to be judgemental. (b) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of parliamentary form of system. (c) Ask them not to critic constitutional values. (d) You will be quite. 45. Which one of the following is not suited to social science pedagogy? (a) Relating learning with learners’ everyday life (b) Relating only relevant outcome to learners’ life (c) Taking test related to reach concepts taught by teacher (d) None of these 46. Which one of the following can be critiqued with reference to pedagogy of social science? (a) Group work (b) Lecturing (c) Field task (d) Poster making 47. A teacher decides to maintain cumulative records of his social science learners. What should he focus on to develop cumulative record of evaluation?

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M16 | Model Test Paper-III (a) Disciplinary record (b) Absent and medical records (c) Aptitude, interests, and social adjustment records (d) General behaviour record of learners 48. When a teacher asks views of learners about any concept of social science and then discusses the accepted knowledge. Teacher is working on the principle of: (a) Indefinite to definite (b) Abstract to concrete (c) Simple to complex (d) Empirical to logical 49. If you have to make a lesson plan about ‘Government’, which one of the following will be your first move? (a) Deciding the objectives (b) Reading about the Government many times (c) Deciding about the resource materials (d) Deciding the questions to be asked to introduce the topic 50. The objective of teaching of social science should be written effectively. Which one of the following way is best suited to the nature of social science discipline? (a) Opportunities will be provided to the learner to ---------(b) Students will be able to ---------(c) Student will come to know ---------(d) All of these 51. The prime objective of teaching of social science is to: (a) Learn (b) Reflect (c) Remember (d) Make notes

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52. A teacher is teaching the concept of ‘Fundamental Rights.’ She has planned group activities in such a way that visual impaired can also become active participants in discussion. She is trying to be: (a) Sympatric towards visually impaired learners (b) Inclusive in her pedagogy (c) Engage learners in class on the principle of integration (d) Develop care and concern in learners other than visually impaired 53. Relating the knowledge of one subject with the knowledge of other subject is known as: (a) Combining the knowledge of subjects (b) Correlation of knowledge (c) Motivation to study both the subjects (d) Strength of teaching of collective subjects 54. If fundamental rights of any individual get violated, the s/he can directly go to the Supreme Court because they have right: (a) Against exploitation (b) To constitutional remedies (c) To equality (d) To liberty 55. Social equality can be best taught by: (a) Explaining scientific meaning of the concept equality (b) Explaining about social equality from the book only (c) Taking examples from learners’ context to make them understand about social equality (d) Asking them to critically answer the question given in exercise in the book

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Social Science | M17 56. What would be your approach to deal with sensitive issues such as religion in your class? (a) You will ask them to read such concepts on their own from books and from library reading. (b) You will respect the book and share with them what so ever is given in the text book. (c) You will discuss such issues with sensitivity and honesty without hurting the dignity of any religion. (d) You will leave such chapters. 57. Every time Lok Sabha starts, the very first hour is known as: (a) Zero hour (b) Question hour (c) First hour (d) None of these 58. How PIL has contributed towards the idea of equal justice? (a) It has hindered the process of justice. (b) It has helped to achieve justice.

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(c) It has created problems for governmental processes. (d) It has not impacted justice process at all. 59. Right to Education is a fundamental right under: (a) Article 21 A (b) Article 14 (c) Article 17 A (d) Article 18 A 60. What is the objective of assessment in social science? (a) To provide them good grade to get good job. (b) To know the knowledge of a learner. (c) To maintain the school record of student achievement. (d) To provide need-based feedbacks to the learner and teacher to develop better learning environment.

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Bibliography Arora, N. D. and Awasthy, S. S. (2003), Political Theory, Haranand Publication Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi. Bandyopadhyaya, S. (2004), From Plassey to Partition and After: A History of Modern India, Orient Blackswan, Delhi. Bandopadhyaya, S. (2009), Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India, Orient Blackswan, India. Beetham, H and Sharpe, R (Eds) (2007), Rethinking Pedagogy for a Digital Age: Designing and Delivering E-learning, Routledge, Oxford. Bernstein, B. (2000), Pedagogy, Symbolic Control and Identity, Rowman & Littlefield, Oxford, England. Bining and Bining (1990), Teaching of Social Science, McGraw Hill Book Company INC, New York. Brophy (2002), Social Constructivist Teaching: Affordances and constraints, Elsevier, New York. Bowles, S. and Gintis, H. (1976), Schooling in Capitalist America, Basic Books, New York. Carr, E. H. (1962), What is history?, Knopf, New York. Chandra, S. (2007), History of Medieval India: 800–1700. Orient Longman, Hyderabad, India. Collins, L. and Lapierre, D. (1975), Freedom at Midnight, Simon and Schuster, New York. Feton, E. (1988), Teaching the New Social Studies in Secondary Schools, Holt, USA. Flyvbjerg, B. (2001), Making Social Science Matter: Why Social Inquiry Fails and How it Can Succeed Again, Cambridge University Press, New York. Hacker, A. (1961), Political theory, Philosophy, Ideology, Science, The Macmillan Company, New York. Jha, D. N. (2004), Early India: A Concise History, Manohar Publisher & Distributors, India. Johnson, S. E. (1988), Theory and Practice of Social Studies, The Macmillan Company, New York. Kirkpatrick, E. (1977), Foundation of Political Science: Research, Methods and Scope, The Free press, New York. Kumar, S. (2009), ‘Teaching of Social Science: A Situated Cognition Perspective’, Journal of Indian Education. Vol. 35 (2), pp. 52–63. Kumar, S. (2010), How to Teach Social Science Differently: Teach and Learn Social Science, VDM Publishing, Germany. Kumar, S. (2011), Role of Socio-cultural Contexts in Process of concept Development, In Singh, S. P. and Dangwal, L. K. (Eds), Innovative Educational Methods, pp. 183–192, New Delhi Publishing, Delhi.

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Bibliography | B2 Kumar, S (2012), Human Rights and Pedagogy, Discovery Publication House, India. Moon, J. (2008), Critical Thinking: An exploration of theory and practice, Routledge, London. NCERT (2005), National Curriculum Framework, National Council for Educational Research and Training, Publishing Department, Delhi. NCERT (2006), Contemporary India-I, National Council for Educational Research and Training, Publishing Department, Delhi. NCERT (2006), Democratic Politics-I, National Council for Educational Research and Training, Publishing Department, Delhi. NCERT (2006), Democratic Politics-II, National Council for Educational Research and Training, Publishing Department, Delhi. NCERT (2006), India and the Contemporary World-I, National Council for Educational Research and Training, Publishing Department, Delhi. NCERT (2006), Our Past-I, National Council for Educational Research and Training, Publishing Department, Delhi. NCERT (2006), Social and Political Life-I, National Council for Educational Research and Training, Publishing Department, Delhi. NCERT (2007), Fundamental of Human Geography, National Council for Educational Research and Training, Publishing Department, Delhi. NCERT (2007), India: Physical Environment, National Council for Educational Research and Training, Publishing Department, Delhi. NCERT (2007), Our Environment, National Council for Educational Research and Training, Publishing Department, Delhi. NCERT (2007), Our Past-II, National Council for Educational Research and Training, Publishing Department, Delhi. NCERT (2007), Social and Political Life-II, National Council for Educational Research and Training, Publishing Department, Delhi. NCERT (2007), Themes of Indian History (Ancient), National Council for Educational Research and Training, Publishing Department, Delhi. NCERT (2007), Themes of Indian History (Medieval), National Council for Educational Research and Training, Publishing Department, Delhi. NCERT (2008), India and the Contemporary World-II, National Council for Educational Research and Training, Publishing Department, Delhi. NCERT (2008), Our Past-III, National Council for Educational Research and Training, Publishing Department, Delhi. NCERT (2008), Resources and Development, National Council for Educational Research and Training, Publishing Department, Delhi. NCERT (2008), Social and Political Life-III, National Council for Educational Research and Training, Publishing Department, Delhi. NCERT (2008), The Earth: Our Habitat, National Council for Educational Research and Training, Publishing Department, Delhi.

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B3 | Bibliography NCERT (2009), Themes of Indian History (Modern), National Council for Educational Research and Training, Publishing Department, Delhi. NCERT (2009), Themes of World History, National Council for Educational Research and Training, Publishing Department, Delhi. Pal, B. C. (1954), Beginnings of Freedom Movement in Modern India, Yugayatri Prakashak, Calcutta. Sharma, B. L. (2007), Teaching of Social science, R. Lal, Book Depot, India. Sharma, R. S. (2005), India’s Ancient Past, Oxford University Press, India. Taneja, V. R. (1967), Teaching of Social Studies, Mohindra Capital Publishers, Chandigarh. Thapar, R. (2003), Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.

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Sandeep Kumar - A Complete Resource For CTET - Social Science and Pedagogy-Pearson India (2016) - PDFCOFFEE.COM (2024)

References